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THE POTATO 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE POTATO, 
ITS CHARACTERISTICS, PLANTING, CUL- 
TIVATION, HARVESTING, STORING, 
MARKETING, INSECTS, AND DISEASES 
AND THEIR REMEDIES, ETC., ETC. 



SAMUEL FRASER 

Assistant Agronomist, Cornell University 




ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
1905 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Cooies Received 

MAR 14 1905 

iop^riirht Entry 
CUBS <* **£• *°» 



Copyright, 1905 
BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 



£7? 



To 

WHOSE LIFE AND WORK ARE AN 
INSPIRATION TO MANY 



PREFACE 



The literature issued on the subject of potatoes 
during the past three hundred years would form a large 
library, many works having been published in the 
United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, 
and other countries. It is safe to say that no plant has 
aroused a deeper interest than ' ' the noble tuber. ' ' Its 
very existence to-day is largely due to the efforts of 
enthusiasts. Several of the older writers were keen 
observers and acquainted intimately with the history 
and character of the potato, and modern authors in- 
clude the names of men who are eminent in the 
scientific world. The vast amount of research and 
demonstration carried out by the experiment stations 
of this country during the past ten years, and the fact 
that every station has done something in this line, show 
the breadth of the subject and furnish material hith- 
erto unobtainable. The excellent research work now 
being carried on in Europe, especially in France, Ger- 
many, etc., and more recently established in Ireland, 
indicates a demand for more information about this 
crop. We feel that the "science of agriculture" is 
a reality ; that, like every past generation, we are on 
the eve of great discoveries; that something of the 
laws governing plant nutrition and growth will shortly 
be revealed, that we may be able to prevent rather than 
cure the troubles which assail our plants. To be of 

vii 



Vlll PREFACE 

any use, scientific research must be rigidly accurate in 
its observation and merciless to fallacy in logic. Once 
a principle is proven it is of no use unless applied, and 
the man to apply it is the farmer. 

At the present time it behooves us to divest our- 
selves of prejudice, whether of tradition or custom, 
which might tend to warp our judgment and treat as 
debatable assumptions which long-established associa- 
tion have made shameful to doubt, but which, undis- 
turbed, would make the discovery of truth impossible. 
To-day theories are no longer revered because our 
fathers believed in them. The search-light of all- 
prying Science illuminates the whole field of agricul- 
ture, and has led men to doubt and call in question 
even truth itself , in order that they might expose those 
things which are not true. It is by this means alone, 
by this attitude of questioning all statements and 
theories, both the truth and the untruth alike, that we 
can form a just estimate of what is true. That which 
cannot stand the fire may rightly be esteemed dross. 

In this book the endeavor has been to colledl many 
scattered fadls from many sources, and present these — 
along with experience derived by growing potatoes for 
several years, commercially and experimentally, in two 
continents — in the hope that these data will be of value 
to the reader. 

Samuel Fraser. 

Cornell University, 

Ithaca, N. Y., 1905 



Note.— With the exception of Figs. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 43, and 44, which 
were kindly loaned by the makers of these implements, and those in which 
credit is given in the text, all illustrations have been prepared by the 
Author. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

History and Botany . 1-7 

CHAPTER II 
Some Conditions Influencing Growth 

and Development 8-16 

Influence of Light on Yield, 8; Amount of Mois- 
ture, 8; Respiration, 9; Influence of Tempera- 
ture on Respiration, 9; Influence of Temperature 
on Growth, 10; Potato Roots, 10; Influence of 
Depth of Planting on Roots, 15; Blossoming, 
Tuber Formation, and Hilling, 16. 

CHAPTER III 
Soils 17-25 

Best Soils, and Reasons why Certain Soils are 
Better than Others, 17; Influence of Soil on 
Different Varieties, 19; Subsoiling, 20; Prepara- 
tion of the Soil, 21; Surface-fitting Tools, 23. 

CHAPTER IV 
Rotation 26-29 

CHAPTER V 
Manuring and Fertilizing 30-50 

Object, 30; Influence of Nitrogen, 31; Influence 
of Potash, 32; Sources of Potash, 33; Influence 
of Phosphoric Acid, 34; Influence of Calcium, 35; 
Barn Manure, 36; Function of Fertilizers, 39; 
Purchasing and Applying Fertilizers, 42; Value, 
43; Unit Value, 44, Purchasing, 44; Valuing 
Barn Manure, 44; Mixing Fertilizers, 46; Ap- 
plying Fertilizers, 48; Water Requirement, 48. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VI 

PAGES 

Considerations of Seed 51-69 

Source of Seed, 51; Management of Seed Previ- 
ous to Planting, 53; Sprouting Potatoes, 54; 
Sprouting Trays, 60; Whole vs. Cut Sets, 60; 
Time to Cut, 61; Size of Seed, 61; Amount of 
Seed per Acre, 63; Relative Value of Bud and 
Stem Ends and the Middle of the Tuber, 66; 
Viability, 66. 

CHAPTER VII 
Varieties 70-90 

Selecting a Variety, 70; Cooking Quality and 
Flavor, 70, 72; Yield, 70, 74; Ability to Resist 
Disease, 71, 76; Color of Skin and Tuber, 71, 76; 
Nature of the Skin, 71, 78; The Shape, 71, 78; 
Depth and Frequency of Eyes, 71, 79; Time of 
Maturity, 71, 79: The Haulm, 71, 80; The Leaf, 
71, 81; The Vigor of the Variety, 71, 82; Second 
Growth, 71, 85; Trueness to Type, 72, 85; Test- 
ing Varieties, 86; The Relationship of Variety 
to Soil, 87; The Most Popular Varieties, 87. 

CHAPTER VIII 
Planting 91-104 

Distance Apart,. 91; Depth of Planting, 93; Influ- 
ence of Depth of Planting on the Depth at Which 
Tubers Form, 94; Influence of Depth on Quality, 
96; Date of Planting, 96; Influence of Late and 
Early Planting, 97; Methods of Planting, 97. 

CHAPTER IX 
Management of the Growing Crop. . 1 05-110 

Cultivation, 105; Systems of Culture, 106; Hills, 
106; Drills, 106; Level Culture, 107; Method of 
Cultivation and Tools Used, 107; Mulching, no. 



CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER X 

PAGES 

Obstructions to Growth and Develop- 
ment 111-127 

Influence of Season and Climate, in; Weeds, 
112; Diseases Due to Parasitic Fungi and Bacte- 
ria, 112; Late Blight or Rot, 112; Early Blight 
or Leaf Spot Disease, 118; Potato Rosette, 118; 
Scab, 119; Diseases in Storage, 121; Wet Rot, 
121; Dry Rot, 122; Stem Rot or Bundle Blacken- 
ing, 122; Bacterial Diseases, 122; Insects, 123; 
Flea-beetle, 123; Potato Bug, 124; Potato Worm, 
125; Potato Stalk Weevil, 126; Grasshoppers, 126; 
June Bug, 126; Wireworms, 127; Striped Blis- 
ter Beetle, 127; Arsenical Poisoning, 127. 

CHAPTER XI 
Sprays and Spraying 128-142 

Fungicides, 128; Bordeaux Mixture, 128; Mixing, 
129; Testing Bordeaux Mixture, 130; Strength 
of Solution, 130; Bordeaux Dust or Dry Bordeaux 
Mixture, 130 ; Washing Soda and Copper Sul- 
phate Mixture, 131; Benefits from Use of Bor- 
deaux Mixture, 131; Time of Spraying, 134; 
Number of Sprayings, 134 ; Insecticides, 135 ; 
Paris Green, 136; Lead Compounds, 137; Arsenic 
and Lime,- 138; Cost of Spraying and Profits De- 
rived, 139; Spraying Machines, 140. 

CHAPTER XII 
Harvesting . . . 143-146 

Digging, 143; Methods of Digging, 143; Diggers, 
144. 



Xll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIII 

PAGES 

Storing 147-152 

Piles, 147; Cellars, 149; Construction of Cellars, 
149; Ventilation and Temperature, 150; Losses 
in Storage, 151. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Production, Transportation, and Mar- 
kets 153-165 

Factors Influencing Farm Prices, 157; Modes of 
Selling, 159; Local Markets, 159; Distant Mar- 
kets, 160: Commission Rates, 160; Grading, 162; 
Packages, 162; Barrels, 162; Bushel Boxes, 164. 

CHAPTER XV 

Chemical Composition and Feeding 

Value 166-170 

Composition, 166; Digestibility, 168; Feeding 
Value, 168; Cooking, 169; Uses, 170. 

CHAPTER XVI 
Breeding and Selection 171-177 

Propagation and Breeding, 171; Selection, 175. 

Appendix ............ 179-180 

Spray Calendar, 178; Seed Treatment, 179. 

Index 181 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

Spraying in a New York Potato Field . Frontispiece 

2 Copy of Engraving of the Virginian Potato from 

Gerard's "Herbal," 1636 2 

3 Sectional View of Potato Flower 4 

4 Tuber, Showing the Arrangement of the Eyes . . 6 

5 Potato Plant, Showing Tubers (Viewed from Above) 12 

6 Potato Plant, Showing Tubers and Roots (Side View) 13 

7 A Useful Type of Spring-tooth Harrow 22 

8 A Disk Harrow , . . . 23 

9 A Double-action Cutaway Harrow 24 

10 The Influence of Lime Upon Potatoes 36 

11 Potato Tray for Storing and Sprouting Seed ... 53 

12 Potato Planted Four Inches Deep, Showing its 

Growth and Development of Tubers 55 

13 Seed Potatoes Sprouted for Use in the Planter . . 56 

14 Seed of Early Potatoes, Sprouted for Hand Planting 56 

15 Seed Potatoes, Showing Weak, Long Sprouts ... 57 

16 Diagram, Showing the Stand of Twenty Plats of 

Carman No. 3 Potatoes 63 

17 Diagram, Showing the Stand of Thirty-six Plats 

of Early Trumbull Potatoes 68 

18 Section of a Tuber of Poor Cooking Quality ... 72 

19 Section of a Tuber of Good Cooking Quality ... 73 

20 Three Varieties Differing in the Character of Net- 

ting of the Skin 77 

xiii 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

21 Three Favorite Shapes of Potatoes 79 

22 Potato Plant, Showing Upright Haulm 80 

23 Potato Plant, Early Variety, Showing Dwarf Haulm 92 

24 The Modern Method of Planting Potatoes .... 98 

25 Planting by Hand 99 

26 Sectional View of the Aspinwall Potato Planter. . 100 

27 Aspinwall Potato Planter (Side View) 101 

28 The Robbins Improved Planter 103 

29 Platform of the Robbins Improved Planter . . . 104 

30 Halleck Expansible Weeder 107 

31 Five-tooth Cultivator, with Hiller Attachment . . 108 

32 A Useful Two-horse Cultivator 109 

33 One-horse Spring Tooth Cultivator no 

34 Section of Potato Leaf, Showing the Parts and 

Mycelium of Blight (Pkytophthora infestans) . . 114 

35 Maturation of a Spore Sac and Germination of a 

Spore of Rot (P. infestans) 115 

36 Longitudinal Section of a Potato Stalk, Showing a 

Germinating Spore of Rot (P. infestans) . . . . 116 

37 The Germinating Tube of a Spore of Rot (P. infes- 

tans) on a Leaf 117 

38 Tubers with and without Scab 120 

39 The Cucumber Flea-beetle (Crepidodera Epitrix cucu- 

meris) 123 

40 Leaflet of Potato, Showing Over a Hundred Holes 

Made by Flea-beetles 123 

41 Sprayed and Unsprayed Portions of a New York 

Potato Field 133 

42 A Suggestive English Spraying Machine .... 140 

43 The Reuther Potato Digger . . 145 

44 The Hoover Digger . 146 

45 Potato Shovel 147 



ILLUSTRATIONS XV 

FIG. PAGE 

46 Storing Potatoes in Pits 148 

47 Showing the Distribution of Potato Production in 

the United States in 1899 154 

48 Showing the Distribution of the Area in the United 

States in Potatoes in 1899 155 

49 Grading and Barreling Potatoes for Market . . . 163 

50 Potato Flower, with Calix and Corolla Removed, 

Showing Anthers and Stigma . . . . . . . 173 

51 Pistil of Potato Flower, Showing Parts 174 



ABBREVIATIONS USED 



U. S. D. A. — United States Department of Agriculture, in 
connection with reports or bulletins. 

E. S. R., V:33 — Experiment Station Record, Volume V., 
page 33. Issued by the United States Department of 
Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. 

Experiment Stations in the various States are designated by 
the common abbreviation for the State— as, "Wis.": 
Wisconsin. Where there are two stations in a State, 
the particular one is designated — as, New York (N. Y.) 
Cornell. The number of the bulletin follows. Some 
States issue their bulletins in volumes, thus: Tenn. Bui., 
Vol. XL, I., p. 116 — Tennessee Bulletin, Volume XL, 
No. I., page 116. 

Pa. D. A. — Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. State 
Departments of Agriculture are abbreviated in this 
manner. 

Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117 — Canada Experi- 
mental Farms Report for 1901, page 117. 

Ont. Agr. Col. and Farm Report, 1898, p. 158 — Ontario 
Agricultural College and Farm Report for 1898, page 
158. 

Hort. Trans., Vol. 1. — Horticultural Transactions of Eng- 
land, Vol. I. 

Nat. His. of Car. — Natural History of Carolina. By Mark 
Catesby, F.R.S. Second Edition. London. 

Proc. Assoc. Prom. Agr. Science — Proceedings of the 
Association for the Promotion of Agricultural Science 
(America). 

xvi 



THE POTATO 



CHAPTER I 
HISTORY AND BOTANY 

The potato {Solatium tuberosum*) , also called "white 
potato," "Irish potato," "English potato," or 
"round potato," is a native of the elevated valleys 
of Chili, Peru, and Mexico, one form of it being found 
as far north as Southern Colorado. The wild potatoes 
of Chili differ from the cultivated form, in that they 
produce seed-balls more freely. 

Tobacco, tomato, egg-plant, capsicum, henbane, and 
belladonna all belong to the potato family, but of 
this large family of 1600 species but six bear tubers. 
Some of these latter — as, Darwin's potato {Solatium 
maglia) — were thought to have some value for cross- 
ing to produce a blight-proof new race, but so far 
success has not been attained in the latter respect. A 
variety of Solatium commersoni, another tuber-bearing 
plant, is now being boomed in Europe as a substitute 
for the common potato. The Arizona wild potato 
{Solatium jamesii) has been grown for many years in 
this country in various places, but its tubers are small 
and of little value. The Mexican or Central American 
potato {Solatium tuberosum var. boreale) is found native 
in Colorado. 



THE POTATO 




fig. 2 — copy of engraving of the virginian potato in 
gerard's "herbal," printed in 1636 

(Compare with photograph, Figs. 5, 6.) In England the name Virginian 
potato was used to designate its source. 



The potato was probably introduced into that part 
of the United States now known as Virginia and 
North Carolina between the middle and close of the 
sixteenth century. It is claimed that in 1586 colonists 
returning from Virginia probably took the potato with 



HISTORY AND BOTANY 3 

them to England. The Spanish had previously carried 
it to Europe. Gerard's " Herbal," published in 1597, 
describes the potato, and the edition published in 1636 
contains a woodcut representing the potato as it ap- 
peared about three hundred years ago (Fig. 2). The 
potato was more readily appreciated in this country 
than in Europe, and by the year 1722 it was a common 
article of food among the whites and Indians in Vir- 
ginia and Carolina. 1 In Europe, with the exception 
of Ireland, potato growing made little progress until 
the middle of the eighteenth century. 

The potato {Solanum tuberosum) is an annual, but 
is virtually perennial by means of its tubers. It has 
smooth, generally solid, more or less quadr angul ar, 
herbaceous sterns^ wj^jch often attain a hight of two to 
five feet. The stems are often furnished with membra- 
nous wings at their angles, and bear compound leaves 
formed of oval leaflets, between which are often found 
small, leafy growths. The flowers (Fig. 3) are borne in 
clusters, and have an entire, wheel-shaped, five-pointed 
corolla, varying in breadth from one to one and a half 
inches, and in color from pure white to purple. It is 
often claimed that many varieties do not flower, and of 
those which do a great number never bear fruit. This 
dearth of fruit is generally attributed to lack of pollen. 
In many varieties the stamens have degenerated, or do 
not open to let the pollen out. 2 Conditions seem to 
have an influence, as a variety may bear abundance of 
pollen and mature seed in one district, but not in 
another in the same year. 



1 "Nat. His. of Carolina, ■" by Mark Catesby, F.R.S., 2d ed. 2 Halstead, 
Proc. Assoc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1888, p. 33, " Potato Flowers and Fruit." 



THK POTATO 



The idea is prevalent that potatoes do not bloom so 
freely How as formerly. The facfts do not tend to con- 
firm this. Mark Catesby, who was in this country in 
1722 and 1726, wrote that "in Virginia and to the 




FIG. 3 — SECTIONAL VIEW OF POTATO FLOWER 
{Diagrammatic) 
a— Ovary, b— Ovules, which finally become seeds, c — Calyx, niade up of 
green-colored leaves, d — Stigma. The pollen attaches itself at this place. 
e— Style, down which the pollen-tube passes to the ovary and ovules. 
p — Petals, white to purple in color. ^ — Stamens. The thick upper portion 
bears the pollen, and is known as the anther. 



north thereof, they [potatoes] are annuals, and produce 
no flowers, while in Carolina and the Bahama Islands 
they produce flowers." Many varieties existed at 
that time, particularly in Virginia, and five kinds were 
common — the Common, Bermudas, Brimstone, Carrot, 



HISTORY AND BOTANY 5 

and Claret potatoes. The Bermuda potato was the 
only one that had a white flower, the flowers of all the 
other kinds being purple. This was the only Yariety 
that had a white skin, and was white fleshed. It was 
round in shape, more tender, and more delicate to raise 
than the others, and did not keep so well. 1 

George Don, in 1831, enumerates seYeral English 
early Yarieties, and says that " none of the aboYe sorts, 
when true, produce blossoms." 2 

At Wyoming Experiment Station, 3 in 1895, out °f 
56 Yarieties grown 14 did not bloom, but in 1896 but 4 
Yarieties failed to bloom out of 56, and onfy one va- 
riety, Blue Victor, failed to bloom in one of the two 
years. In other parts of the State all the Yarieties 
grown came into bloom. In New York, during 1904, 
the variety Blue Victor was profuse in its bloom, and 
bore abundance of seed-balls. Out of 300 Yarieties I 
have followed closely, having grown man)- for several 
years, I find that it is seldom that a variety will not 
bloom at some time in its life, and I am sure that many 
of the heaviest-yielding varieties bloom as freely as 
those of inferior merit. At Wyoming Experiment 
Station the ten heaviest yielding varieties all came into 
bloom both in 1895 and in 1896, in experiments con- 
ducted in various parts of the State. 

The fruit, or seed-ball, is a globular or short oval 
berry, either green or green tinged with violet, brown, 
purplish, or yellowish in color, and from three-quar- 
ters to one and a half inches in diameter. It contains 



1 "Nat. His. of Carolina," by Mark Catesby, F.R.S., 2d ed. 

2 Don's "Gardener's Dictionary," 1831-S, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. 

3 Wyo. Bui. 32, pp. 54-63. 



THE POTATO 



small white kidney-shaped seeds embedded in the midst 
of a green and very acrid pulp (Fig. 3). These seeds 
are sown for the purpose of raising new varieties. 

The main vertical underground stem varies in length 
with the depth of planting. This stem branches at in- 
tervals, and each branch enlarges at the end to form a 
tuber (Fig. 12). Usually -from two to four roots start 

from the vertical underground 
stem at the base of each tuber- 
bearing branch, but roots may 
start where such branches are 
absent. This characteristic 
growth may be seen by grow- 
ing a potato in a barrel half 
full of soil and manure, and 
watering it well; then, as the 
stem grows, place soil round it, 
thus increasing the length of 
the underground portion and 
the number of tuber-bearing 
branches. The tubers may be 
formed above ground, and 
whenever they are abundant 
in the axils of the leaves there 
are few or none below ground. 

The tuber is an underground 
stem, and the eyes on it are 
equivalent to the leaf buds on a stem of a young 
peach or ailanthus. They are arranged more or less 
spirally in both cases (Fig. 4). From the eye a num- 
ber of buds may start; hence, in the case of new and 
expensive varieties, the tubers may be split through the 



FIG. 4 — KIDNEY-SHAPED 

potato {Does Pride) 
Showing the alignment of 
the eyes, and that the ter- 
minal buds tend to start 
first. Note the short, thick, 
desirable shoots. 



HISTORY AND BOTANY 7 

eyes, if desired, and a shoot obtained from each half. 
As each shoot sets a root it may be broken off and trans- 
planted, and another may start. By these means and 
great care a pound of seed tubers has been made to 
yield 2,558 pounds of potatoes in one season. 



Historical Note. — The early history of the potato is obscure. 
The most authentic information I have secured is that Sir 
Robert Southwell, the President of the Royal Society of Eng- 
land, at the meeting held December 13, 1693, stated that the 
potato was brought into Ireland by his grandfather, who ob- 
tained tubers from Sir Walter Raleigh, after the return of his 
expedition from Virginia. This was in the year 1584. It is 
now believed that Sir Walter Raleigh fitted out this expedi- 
tion, but did not lead it personally, and never was in Virginia. 

Timbs' "Curiosities of History," page 233, places the date 
of its' introduction to the British Isles as 15S6. 



CHAPTER II 

SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 
AND DEVELOPMENT 

It is common knowledge that a certain amount of 
heat and an adequate supply of air and moisture are 
essential for plant growth. All plants that have green 
leaves require light, in addition, to enable them to as- 
similate carbon dioxid from the air, dissociate it into its 
component parts, and elaborate the carbon into such 
complex substances as starch, sugar, and other carbo- 
hydrates. 

Influence of Light on Yield. — E. Pagnoul 1 placed 
colored glass over different potato plants. Two plants 
under darkened glass elaborated 31 and 20 grams of 
starch respectively, while those under ordinary glass 
elaborated 170 and no grams; at the same time plants 
under normal conditions elaborated 223 and 361 grams. 
To the favorable influence of abundant light this writer 
attributes the large yield of potatoes in a season when 
the aggregate number of hours of sunshine is unusually 
large. At Wisconsin Experiment Station coldness and 
cloudiness were believed to be the causes of a poor 
yield. 2 

The Amount of Moisture. — The amount of 
water the plant can obtain from the soil is closely cor- 



1 E). S. R., V., p.116. 2 Wis. Report, 1902, p. 188. 
8 



SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 9 

related with the mode of development. If the soil is 
very dry, and particularly if the tuber is cut, the seed 
tuber may be so weakened by loss of moisture that it 
cannot grow. If a tuber has access to but a small 
amount of water, there will be little or no root devel- 
opment, with little formation of leaf shoots, but tubers 
will be formed. Advantage is taken of this fact when 
small early potatoes are required, the tubers being 
placed in sand, in a cellar, when small tubers will form, 
but none or few leaves. Under certain conditions, with 
an abundance or excess of moisture, numerous leaf 
shoots and roots appear, but no tubers. An increase 
in the supply of moisture in the air has been found to 
favor the development of leaves on the shoots, where 
only scales were formed in an insufficient supply of 
moisture. 

Respiration. — We may say that all plants breathe 
or take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxid. With 
potatoes this is a necessary function, and if checked, 
growth is injured. It is probable that light induces 
some conditions more favorable to increased respira- 
tion than darkness; hence, if the object is to store pota- 
toes, it will be better to hold respiration at its lowest 
point and keep them in the dark. Respiration cannot 
go on without force or energy, and as this must be 
supplied, at least partly, from the tuber, it follows that 
active respiration will be attended by loss of weight, 
and this goes on very rapidly when the tuber sprouts. 

If we wish to ' ' sprout ' ' tubers, the best conditions 
for doing so are still undetermined. 

Influence of Temperature on Respiration. — 
All plants have a range of temperature at which respi- 



IO THE POTATO 

ration is normal. The minimum, optimum, and max- 
imum temperatures have been ascertained for some 
plants. Young wheat plants will respire at as low a 
temperature as 28 F., or below freezing-point. The 
optimum temperature for wheat is about 104 F., 
while that of potato plants is about 113 F. The 
maximum for wheat is 113 F., while that for pota- 
toes is about 131 ° F. In other words, the potato 
respires best at about 113 F., but should the temper- 
ature go above 131 ° F., the respiration will be some- 
what less than before, and the vitality weakened ; 
hence, after a hot spell, when the temperature exceeds 
the maximum for respiration, it is noticeable that the 
potatoes fail and become more susceptible to the blight 
or other troubles, owing to their impaired constitu- 
tion. By selection we might procure plants of greater 
vitality, capable of standing the higher temperatures, 
which would enable them to be better ' ' disease-resist- 
ers," Present-day potatoes thrive best in a cool 
climate. 

Influence of Temperature on Growth. — The 
minimum temperature for germination of potato tubers 
is about 50 F.; hence, in the Northern States early 
planted tubers make little, or no growth unless planted 
shallow, and this is not desirable, except, perhaps, for 
the earliest varieties. It is better to germinate the 
tubers in the barn before planting, thus saving time 
(see Chapter VI., " Sprouting Potatoes ")• 

Potato Roots. — Generally speaking, far more at- 
tention has been paid to the stems and leaves of plants 
than the roots, yet in order to cultivate the soil in a 
rational manner it is essential to know where the roots 



SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH II 

are, their character, and requirements. Examination 
of the roots of Early Ohio potatoes, 1 made July 5, 1899, 
forty-three days after planting, about the time the crop 
received its third cultivation, showed that at this time 
there was little growth of fibrous roots — only the skele- 
ton system supplied with numerous delicate root hairs. 
The seed tuber appeared to be sound and whole, but on 
closer examination it proved to be but a shell. Only a 
few eyes on the upper side of each tuber produced shoots; 
thus one hill produced three stalks from two eyes, and 
another had seven stalks springing from five eyes. 
The latter plant had more numerous but smaller roots 
than the former. Twenty-five small potatoes were set 
on the first plant, the largest of which were the size 
of a large pea. At this stage of development the main 
portion of the roots was in the surface eight inches, a 
few roots reached to the depth of eighteen inches, but 
the greatest root growth was in a horizontal direction. 
The roots from each hill had already met and interlaced, 
some having reached a length of two feet, the plants 
being three feet apart. At six inches from the hill some 
of the main lateral roots were but two and one-quarter 
inches from the surface of the ground, while midway 
between the rows their depth was barely three inches 
from the surface. 

Further examination of Early Ohio potatoes seventy- 
two days after planting, when the tubers were nearly 
full size, showed that the main root growth was in the 
upper foot of soil ; several of the large horizontal roots 
were within three inches of the surface, and one was 
but one inch deep. Some of the vertical roots reached 

1 N. Dak. Bui. 45. p. 541. 




<V £ 



14 THE POTATO 

a depth of two and a half feet. The deep-growing 
roots are very tender and brittle and easily broken, 
differing in this respedl from corn roots. The hori- 
zontal roots send out vertical branches, which often 
descend to a depth of two feet or more. 

Shallow tillage, such as hand-hoeing without hill- 
ing, retains all the roots. Moderately deep tillage 
with a five-tooth single horse-cultivator and slight 
hilling destroys practically all the surface roots, and 
undoubtedly interferes seriously with the plant's de- 
velopment ; while with deep tillage nearly all the long 
horizontal roots are destroyed, and with them all their 
numerous vertical branch-roots with their intricate 
system of fibres and root hairs, by which the potato 
receives its food. In very heavy soils it may be wise to 
plant potatoes shallow and then hill them, but in most 
soils it is better policy to plow deep, plant fairly deep, 
and give shallow flat cultivation. With deep tillage 
the roots nearest the surface were at a depth of seven 
inches, while in the case of those receiving shallow 
tillage the bulk of the horizontal roots were in the sur- 
face seven inches. The hilling covers the potatoes and 
prevents them from sunburning, and this seems to be 
all the benefit received. The loss of roots is very 
hurtful, and takes place at a time when the plant can 
least afford to suffer injury. Experiments condudled 
at Vermont Experiment Station 1 show that during 
the last weeks of growth the weekly increase in weight 
of tubers is at its maximum, and that checks when the 
tubers are approaching maturity depress the yield cor* 
respondingly. 

1 Ver. Bui. 72, p. 5. 



SOME CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH 1 5 

A sample of Early Ohio potatoes taken ninety days 
after planting, when the vines were beginning to die 
and the tubers were nearly ripe, showed that the roots 
penetrated to a depth of over two and a half feet. 1 The 
branches from the main lateral roots had reached about 
as deep as those immediately under the hill, and the 
soil was filled with roots to a depth of about two and 
a half feet. The system of rooting is similar to that of 
corn, but the plant is not so good a forager, and the 
roots do not fill the soil so completely; hence, plants 
can be placed closer together. 

Late varieties have a similar root system, but root 
more freely, more deeply (a depth of three and a half 
feet being common if the soil conditions will permit), 
and occupy the ground more completely; hence, require 
more room than early varieties. 

At Cornell University, during 1904, many potatoes 
had horizontal roots in the surface inch of soil. All 
of these would be destroyed by moderately deep tillage. 

Influence of Depth of Planting on Roots. — 
Generally speaking, the new potatoes and the roots start 
out above the seed, although if an under eye of the 
potato produces the shoot the roots and tubers may 
develop at the side of the seed. Depth of planting has 
some influence on the depth at which the tubers will 
form, and may have some on the roots. The question 
deserves investigation. Many plants prefer to send 
out their roots at a uniform depth below the surface : 
thus, at Cornell University, wheat, whether planted 
six inches deep or one inch deep, will send out its per- 



1 N. Dak. Bui. 43. p. 544. 



1 6 THE POTATO 

manent roots about one and a half inches below the 
surface. 

Blossoming, Tuber Formation, and Hilling. — 

Potatoes are hilled about the time they come into 
bloom, and this is the time that tuber formation is 
beginning. The ancestral type of potato developed 
seed about this time and died ; the tendency acquired 
by cultivation is to throw all the reserve material into 
tuber production. These reproductive processes cause 
a severe drain upon the plant's energies, and the fort- 
night immediately following the blossoming period is 
therefore a peculiarly critical time for the plant, during 
which time its life hangs in the balance. At this time 
it is subjedl to extreme heat, and may be injured; also 
insedts, fungi, etc., may attack it, and, to add to its 
troubles, cutting off a lot of its roots, either just before 
or about this time, is no doubt the common cause of a 
decline from which the plant never recovers. Even 
tuber formation, without the influence of other agen- 
cies, may cause a plant to die. The importance of 
studying the condition of the plant at this time will be 
appreciated when it is remembered that the entire crop 
of salable tubers is formed after this critical period is 
past, and full success with the crop depends upon retain- 
ing the plant healthy for from one to three months 
after the blossoming period. During August, in one 
case, 1 the crop of potatoes increased at the rate of over 
50 bushels, or over 3,000 pounds, weekly per acre. 
The importance of avoiding checking growth prepara- 
tory to or during such a time is evident. 



Ver. Bui. 72, p. 5. 



CHAPTER III 
SOILS 

The soil considered best is a deep, mellow, free- 
working loam, grading either to a sandy loam or clay 
loam, although the crop may be raised on lighter or 
heavier soils, provided the latter are drained. Tile 
drainage should be resorted to, if necessary, to reduce 
the water table to from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet below 
the surface. 

Some reasons for selecting a light, sandy, or gravelly 
loam for the crop are : 

1 . Such soils can be worked early in spring, and gotten 

ready for early planting, if desired ; 

2. The lighter soil becomes warm more readily in the 

spring than a heavier soil, and germination of the 
tuber and growth of the plant proceeds more 
rapidly ; 

3. They can be easily worked, and placed and main- 

tained in good tilth without a heavy labor bill ; 

4. The effects of the manures and fertilizers applied 

are generally perceptible for a longer period of 
time than on lighter soils ; 

5. The potatoes grown on such a soil usualty come out 

bright and clean, smooth and of more uniform 
size — important factors when they go on the 
market ; 

17 



1 8 THE POTATO 

6. L,ight soils usually produce potatoes of better qual- 

ity, because they tend to shorten the growing 
period by cutting off the moisture supply, and thus 
forcing the potatoes to mature earlier; 

7. Those grown on well-drained sandy loam soils usu- 

ally keep better than those grown on stiff clay 

soils. 
Aroostock County, Maine, is famous for its potatoes. 1 
Its soil presents a gently rolling surface, and is com- 
posed essentially of drift deposited during the melting 
of the ice after the ice age, and resting on a stratum 
of limestone, which in many places comes to the sur- 
face. The soil partakes of the general nature of drift 
containing a considerable portion of sand and the usual 
amount of organic matter. It is peculiarly suited to 
potatoes, because it does not pack after hard rains nor 
during periods of drouth. Its open and porous nature 
permits the free development of tubers and the ramifi- 
cation of the roots. The soil was originally covered 
with a growth of hard and soft woods, consisting chiefly 
of maple, cedar, birch, white poplar, spruce, hemlock, 
and pine. The forest growth was dense, and in clear- 
ing large quantities of ashes were produced, which 
fitted the virgin fields particularly for the production 
of large crops of potatoes. After a few years of culti- 
vation, the crop-producing power of the soil showed a 
diminution, and to-day applications of farm manures 
and commercial fertilizers containing a large percent- 
age of potash are resorted to. Analyses of Maine soils 
show that they are silicious, contain considerable or- 



1 U. S. D. A., Div. of Chemistry, Bui. 58, p. 5-8. 



SOILS 19 

ganic matter, and are reasonably rich in lime and mag- 
nesia, which seem to be essential constituents of a soil 
suited to the growth of potatoes. The potash is also 
in fair quantity, but not sufficient to produce maximum 
crops. The famous potato-growing counties of Wiscon- 
sin, Portage, Waushara, and Waupaca had oyer 60,000 
acres in potatoes in 1899, and these are as important 
to the Central States as Aroostock County, Maine, is 
to the Eastern States. The soil is glacial drift, some 
of it being made up of level deposits of sand and gravel 
covered with a light loam. The sand is usually un- 
derdrained by a bed of coarse gravel. Sandy loams 
prevail. Clayey loams occupy some areas, but are 
not prevalent. The average yield is 100 bushels 
per acre. 

On Long Island, N. Y., the chief potato soils on the 
south side of the island are light silt loams underlain 
either by gravel or sand, while gravelly till is the 
main type on the northern side. The yields vary from 
80 to 250 bushels per acre. 

The Influence of Soil on Different Varieties. — 
Professor Buifum, 1 of Wyoming Experiment Station, 
reported on eight varieties grown on each of two kinds 
of soil represented on the experiment farm. The soil 
and crops were treated alike. Plat 1 is bench-land 
above the river, and is a deep red colluvial soil con- 
taining little humus. Plat 2 is bottom-land next the 
river, and is a black soil containing a large amount of 
humus. 



Wyo. Bui. 32, p. 6. 



20 



THE POTATO 
TABLE I 



"variety 


Plat i 
Yield per acre 


Plat 2 
Yield per acre 


Increased yield 
on Plat 2 


Beauty of Hebron 

Early Mayflower 

Early Puritan 

Empire State 

I,ate Puritan 

Pride of the West 

Snowdrop 

White Elephant 


Lbs. 

9,678 
15,060 
12,702 
15,372 
18,858 

5,040 
14,562 
11,808 


Lbs. 
23,628 
28,842 
32,340 
22,698 
26,742 
23,322 
25,500 
27,990 


Lbs. 
i3,95o 
13,782 
19,638 
7,326 
7,884 
18,282 
10,938 
16,182 


Average 


12,885 


26,383 


13,498 



The figures taken collectively show the importance 
of selecting a soil suitable for the crop to be grown, 
the yield being doubled on Plat 2, while taken indi- 
vidually it is evident that certain varieties were better 
adapted to the environment than others. The ques- 
tion of which variety will best suit the environment 
must be determined by the grower. 

Subsoiling. — Buffum 1 , of Wyoming, states that sub- 
soiling may be recommended throughout that State for 
potatoes. The cost of subsoiling to a depth of 1 6 inches 
to 18 inches varied between $3.00 and $6.00 per acre. 
Hays 2 , of Minnesota, found it to be expensive and not 
profitable under most conditions in that State, and that 
it reduced the yields of crops on land already suffi- 
ciently open and porous. In humid climates, if at- 
tempted, it is advocated that subsoiling be done in the 
fall, to permit the readjustment of the soil granules 
before springtime, so that the moisture will be able to 
rise upward from the subsoil, as evaporation takes 



Wyo. Bui. 41, pp. 20. 21; Bui. 32, pp. 7, 8. 



2 Minn. Bui. 68, p. 609. 



SOILS 2 1 

place at the surface, and prevent the crop being de- 
stroyed by lack of moisture. Injurious results from 
subsoiling in spring have been noted, probably due to 
the working of the subsoil when it was too wet. It 
does not follow that because the surface soil to the depth 
of eight inches is dry enough to plow the subsoil will 
be, and in many cases the subsoil has been puddled 
by spring working, and the supply of moisture from 
below more or less completely cut off, with disastrous 
results to the crop. 

Preparation of the Soil. — The ideal crop to pre- 
cede potatoes is timber, but as no rotation comprising 
this crop is in use, the preparation given after timber 
demands little attention. Potatoes are more commonly 
grown after potatoes, corn, or after clover or sod. In 
such cases preference is usually given to fall plowing, 
accomplished during October or November until freez- 
ing prevents further work. Deep plowing should be 
done in fall, because opportunity is then given for the 
storage of water in the soil during the winter and 
when the thaw occurs in spring. If manure is to be 
applied it is spread before plowing, but, if rotted, it may 
be applied later and disked in. The depth of plowing 
varies with the soil, probably six inches or eight inches 
being most common, although, if the soil will permit, 
eight inches to twelve "inches will be better. When 
soils are deficient in humus, it is generally inadvisable 
to plow deeply. The humus content of such soils 
should be increased and the depth of plowing increased 
correspondingly, thus bringing the land into a higher 
state of production. In some districts where the snow 
covers the ground all winter the land is harrowed well 



22 



THE POTATO 



in fall and left nearly ready for planting, thus facilita- 
ting spring work. Where the frost penetrates deeply, 
or the soil is apt to run together, the land is better left 
rough plowed all winter and fitted in spring ; but this 
entails some loss of time, and prevents the early plant- 
ing of potatoes. 

Sometimes it is necessary to plow in spring, and in 
many cases it is profitable to replow w r hen a fall plow- 




FIG. 7— A USEFUL TYPE OF SPRING-TOOTHED HARROW 



ing has been given. Under such conditions a depth of 
not more than six inches or eight inches is advised, 
because plowing land is attende'd by loss of moisture, 
and in most cases the amount of moisture held in the 
soil or supplied as rainfall during the growing period 
is insufficient to insure maximum yields ; hence, care 
should be taken to conserve all the moisture possible 
by plowing judiciously, making and maintaining a 
mulch of the surface soil, thus checking evaporation, 



SOILS 



23 



and by enriching the soil in humus either by manuring 
or a suitable rotation. Humus affecfts the physical 
properties of the soil considerably — among other things, 
enabling it to hold more moisture without injury to 
the plants in a wet time, and to endure drouth in a 




FIG. 8 — AN EFFICIENT PULVERIZER; THE DISK HARROW 

dry time. 1 Even where irrigation is practiced the 
above fadlors cannot be economically negledled. 

Surface-fitting Tools. — The Acme harrow is one 
of the best tools for making a soil mulch before the 
crop is planted, and in trials made by Sanborn 2 was 
shown to be the most efficient type of harrow for pul- 
verizing soil. On stony land, or where roots of trees 
interfere, the spring- tooth harrow (Fig. 7) is preferred 
for deep tillage of the soil, while under other conditions 



1 Minn. Bui. 68, pp. 576-579. 2 Utah Bui. 4. 



24 



THE POTATO 



the disk harrow. These tools work deeper than the 
Acme harrow, and may be used to prepare the soil to a 
depth of four to six inches, which seems to be as deep as 
is necessary. Few farmers prepare land to this depth, 
as it requires three horses on a six-foot harrow on a loam 
soil. Two to 2)4 inches is more common. Harrows 
differ in their action; thus, the spring-toothed harrow 





,f,.^3h mm 


1 1 

§ * 


iJBhry 






I lb 


<l 


i lirvn 


n "35j§B 


Iftfll 




y '. J.. ' 


. "-S - 4- -;~3 



FIG. 9— DOUBLE-ACTION CUTAWAY HARROW 

and the smoothing or spike-tooth harrow tend to com- 
pact the soil while fining it, while the disk type (Figs. 
8 and 9) and Acme harrows tend to lighten it and make 
it more open when they fine it. For potatoes and corn 
the latter are preferable, while for wheat the former. 
Whatever tool is used the land should be well fitted. 
Few farmers prepare the land well enough, and many 



SOILS 25 

would find it more economical and profitable to spend 
another week working the land than to rush the crop 
into a badly prepared seed-bed. The soil under the 
plants and near them cannot be touched when they have 
been planted, while wide tools may be used before. 



CHAPTER IV 
ROTATION 

In some cases potatoes are grown continuously for 
several years on the same soil, but a rotation of crops 
is preferable for many reasons — among others, to lessen 
the dangers of attacks of diseases and insects, and to 
bring the soil into a suitable physical condition for 
growing this crop. Some rotations suggested by 
Wheeler, of the Rhode Island Experiment Station, 1 
are as follows: three-year rotation — potatoes, winter 
rye, common red clover; four-year rotation — corn on 
clover sod, potatoes, winter rye, clover. This can be 
made into a five-year rotation by seeding timothy and 
redtop with the clover, and leaving the mixture down 
two years, thus reducing the labor bill to some ex- 
tent. Trials of these and other rotations were made 
on land so poor that corn attained a hight of but 4 
or 5 inches, while the first crops of salable potatoes 
were but 65 bushels per acre. During later years, 
with management similar to that given the first year, 
and the application of a similar amount of fertilizers, 
the yields ran up to 350 bushels of salable potatoes per 
acre. A common Maine rotation is a four-year course 
of potatoes, oats, clover and grass, the latter for two 
years — it being noted that clover thrives on good po- 
tato land. In deciding upon the rotation it is important 



1 R. I. Bui. 74, 75, 76. 
26 



ROTATION 27 

to note the influence of each crop upon the moisture 
content of the soil (see p. 5.0); thus, rye removes less 
moisture from the soil than wheat. Oats draw heav- 
ily upon the moisture content. 

The potato crop is not usually considered to be a 
heavj' water consumer. It leaves the soil in a rela- 
tively moist condition; hence, the wisdom of the Maine 
four-year course, in which oats succeed potatoes. 
This course requires but one deep plowing in four 
years, that for the potatoes, and in this it is econom- 
ical. Peas use a relatively small amount of water, 
and would leave the soil in good shape for potatoes. 
In Wisconsin, 1 while potatoes grown in rotation yield- 
ed 342.8 bushels per acre, a crop grown on an old 
alfalfa sod yielded but 277.7 bushels per acre, al- 
though the rainfall was considered adequate to pro- 
duce a full crop. In some cases clover tends to 
leave the soil drier than some other crops, and its 
use as the preceding crop for potatoes may be detri- 
mental. In most cases, however, a leguminous crop 
is the best to precede potatoes. In Florida 2 cow-peas 
preceding potatoes increased the yield 40 per cent. 
The Ohio Station 3 found that in the three-course rota- 
tion — potatoes, wheat, clover — whenever good crops of 
clover were grown the economy of using nitrogenous 
fertilizers for the potatoes was questionable, thus show- 
ing that a good rotation is equivalent to manuring. 
Plowing under a leguminous crop is held to be good 
practice on farms where an adequate supply of manure 
is not forthcoming and little stock is kept; thus, a-t the 



1 Wis. Report, 1902, p. 188. 2 Fla. Report, 1900-1901. p. 26. 

3 Ohio Bui. 125, p. 132. 



28 



THE POTATO 



Maryland Station, 1 plowing under a crop of crimson 
clover increased the yield 34.4 bushels per acre, or 50 
per cent., and the average gain for two years was 27 
bushels per acre, or 45 per cent.; the Storrs 2 (Connect- 
icut) Station reports that clover sown in corn at the 
last cultivation had a high value when used to plow 
under as manure for potatoes, even though it only 
attained a hight of three or four inches ; in Germany 3 
the sweet clover (Mclilotus alba) is found to be a valu- 
able green manure; while in another German experi- 
ment, 4 where clover was seeded in rye which was 
grown for grain, the clover being plowed under the 
following spring, it was noted that the yield of rye 
was dimished, but the yield of the succeeding crop of 
potatoes was increased. The yields of rye and potatoes 
were: 

TABLE II 



Rye alone 

Rye alone 

Rye and late sown red clover 
Rye and early sown red clover 




Yield per acre of 
potatoes, 1893 



Bushels 



289 
296 
330 
430 



Lbs. 



35 
15 
25 
39 



As green manuring for poor sandy land on Long 
Island, N. Y., Professor Stone, of Cornell University, 
suggested sowing a bushel of cow-peas and ten pounds 
of crimson clover per acre, in July, with some fertil- 



1 Md. Bui. 38, p. 58. 
3 E. S. R., V., p. 701. 



2 Conn. (Storrs) Report, 1900, p. 65. 
4 K. S. R., VI., p. 292. 



ROTATION 29 

izers. The cow-peas were killed by the first frost, but 
the clover persisted; the crowding, however, was such 
that the plants of neither crop got too large before be- 
ing plowed under the following spring. For farther 
north a combination of half a bushel of buckwheat 
and a peck to half a bushel of rye per acre, sown 
together, has given good results. Rape sown at the 
rate of four to five pounds per acre is useful. Other 
crops will suggest themselves. In parts of New York, 
especially on heavy loams, buckwheat is esteemed as 
the preceding crop for potatoes. It crowds out weeds 
and leaves the soil in excellent physical condition. 



CHAPTER V 
MANURING AND FERTILIZING 

Land is manured and fertilized either to increase or to 
maintain its crop-producing power. Whether this is 
secured by the diredl effedt of the chemical ingredients in 
the manure or fertilizers, or by their influence upon the 
physical properties of the soil, or both, is an unsettled 
scientific problem, but all agree that under certain con- 
ditions the addition of manures, fertilizers, and water 
to the soil is profitable. Whether it will be profitable 
on a particular farm or field, and the manure, fertil- 
izer or combination of fertilizers which will be most 
profitable to use, are questions the grower must settle 
for himself by trial. No chemical examination of the 
soil yet conducted has shown why two soils, apparently 
identical in chemical composition, should not produce 
similar yields of crops. Experience has shown that 
the chemical composition of the soil is no guide to its 
crop-producing power. Hence, all that can be given in 
this chapter is to submit mixtures of fertilizers that 
are used and the role the different important ingre- 
dients are believed to play in the plant economy. 

In addition to water, which is treated elsewhere, 
four elements are frequently applied in various chem- 
ical forms as fertilizers — nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- 
sium, and calcium. The potato through its life re- 
quires liberal supplies of the first three of these elements, 
and its behavior in regard to these is similar to that of 

30 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 3 1 

a shallow-rooted root crop. The fadts that the potato 
is a starch-producing crop, and that its period of 
growth is through the summer and extending well into 
autumn must be remembered. In these features it is 
similar to corn, but distinctly different from the cereals 
which ripen in the summer, as it is assumed that it is 
able to utilize the nitrates and other plant-food liber- 
ated during the summer and fall. E. Hecke 1 states 
that the demand for nitrogen is especially strong dur- 
ing the first half of the vegetative period, while the 
demand for potash is greatest during the second half 
of the growing period, and that potash aids in the for- 
mation of starch, and especially in the development of 
tubers and roots, although the effedts were observed in 
all parts of the plant. 

The Influence of Nitrogen. — Wilfarth 2 showed 
that when the supply of nitrogen is insufficient the 
leaves tend to turn yellow, and that if the available 
supply of potash is deficient heavy applications of nitro- 
gen tend to reduce the percentage of tubers and starch. 
Lawes and Gilbert 3 show that nitrogen stimulates the 
production of starch, provided the mineral constituents 
are not deficient; but in large quantities nitrogenous 
fertilizers stimulated luxuriant growth, delayed matur- 
ation, and produced potatoes richer in nitrogen and 
much more liable to disease. At the Rhode Island 
Experiment Station 4 dried blood ranked first of the 
nitrogenous fertilizers applied, followed by nitrate of 
soda and sulphate of ammonia; but on soils said to be 
extremely acid, dried blood was only about half as 



1 K. S. R., VII., p. 667. 2 E. S. R. XIV., p. 561. 

3 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. VI. 4 R. I. Bui. 65, pp. 133, 134. 



32 THE POTATO 

beneficial as it should be; hence, such soils need liming 
before full benefit can be derived from the use of this 
fertilizer. A mixture of two-thirds dried blood and 
one-third nitrate of soda, or of equal parts of all three 
fertilizers, is suggested. At the Tennessee Experiment 
Station 1 cottonseed-meal was found to be a more profit- 
able source of nitrogen than nitrate of soda, while at 
the Florida Station 2 the nitrogen of cottonseed-meal 
and castor pomace were equally effective, but that of 
nitrate of soda was more so by 30 per cent. 

The Influence of Potash. — Wilfarth and Wim- 
mer 3 show that when potassic fertilizers are applied to 
a soil almost destitute in potash they — 

1. Increase the size of the tuber, but have little influ- 

ence upon its composition, and that the amount 
of potash in tubers remains fairly constant, unin- 
fluenced by the amounts in the soil, or applied, 
unless very heavy applications are made, which 
may cause an increase to a certain point, but w r ill 
be attended by a decline if continued. 

2. Decrease the percentage of stems and leaves, but 

have no marked influence on the roots of potatoes. 

3. Have a marked influence on the shape and appear- 

ance of the leaf; if deficient, the leaves are yellow- 
ish-brown in color, and become spotted or striped 
in the portions between the veins, while the peti- 
ole of the leaf and ribs retain their dark green 
color. If the supply of potash is insufficient the 
leaves tend to curl, and sometimes collapse of the 
plant follows. 

1 Tenn. Bui., Vol. XIII., No. 3, p. 6. 2 Fla. Report, 1900-1901, p. 27. 

3 E. S. R., XIV., p. 561. 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 33 

4. Increase the quantity of water transpired per gram 
of dry matter. 

Hecke 1 shows that the application of potassic fertil- 
izers has a marked influence in the production of 
tubers and roots, and that potash assists in the forma- 
tion of starch. L,awes and Gilbert 2 noted that the 
percentage of potash was relatively high when the 
supply of it was relatively liberal and vice versa, but 
the variations are small, and that where there w 7 as a 
deficiency of potash in the supply and in the ash there 
was generally an increased supply of lime in the ash. 

Which is the Better Source of Potash, Sul- 
phate or Muriate of Potash ? — This question is 
still unsettled, because, apart from other considerations, 
one of the deciding factors is the relative cost of each. 
In many cases the results are inconclusive, 3 while in 
some cases 4 the fertilizers appear to be of equal value. 
In others 5 sulphate of potash gave better results; thus 
Davidson, of Virginia, 6 found that the potatoes grown 
by sulphate of potash contained more dry matter but 
a less percentage of starch than those fertilized with 
muriate of potash. Brooks 7 found that sulphate of 
potash gave a greater yield per acre of merchantable 
tubers, which were of larger size and of superior eat- 
ing quality, containing 2 to 3 per cent, more starch, 
and, when cooked, the potatoes were whiter, of better 
flavor, and more mealy. 



1 E. S. R., VII., p. 667. 2 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. VI., "Experi- 

ments on the Growth of Potatoes.' ' 3 (N.Y.) Geneva Bui. 137, pp. 604, 620, 
4 N. H. Bui. 41, p. 13. 5 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1896, p. 22 ; R. I. Bui. 65, 
p. 133 ; Mich. Bui. 131, p. 10; (N. Y.) Geneva, Bui. 137, pp. 621, 622. 6 Va. Bui. 
92, pp. 107, 108. 7 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1904, p. 122. 



34 THE POTATO 

The time and method of application must be con- 
sidered. In my experience muriate of potash has given 
better results when applied the previous fall, especially 
if more than ioo pounds per acre are to be applied, the 
presumption being that the potassium compound under- 
goes changes in the soil, and that the injurious chlorine 
is removed as a chloride by the winter and spring 
rains. For spring application in the drills sulphate of 
potash may be better, or a mixture of sulphate and mu- 
riate of potash, if more than the above-mentioned 
quantity is required. The disadvantage of the muriate 
of potash seems to be due to the fact that it is a chlo- 
ride, and Sjollema 1 and Pfeiffer 2 have shown that the 
chlorides of potassium, sodium (common salt) , and mag- 
nesium, when added to the sulphate of potash, dimin- 
ished the starch content of the potatoes considerably, 
and that the reduction was greatest in varieties rich 
in starch. This would seem to support the common 
idea that sulphate of potash produces better quality 
potatoes than muriate of potash. Wheeler, 3 of Rhode 
Island, shows that calcium chloride had a marked 
poisonous effect upon potatoes and nearly destroyed 
them, while the same amount of calcium in certain 
forms other than the chloride or sulphate increased the 
yield and vigor of the plants. New varieties, and 
those making a heavy growth of haulm, seem to be 
particularly sensitive to chlorides. 

Influence of Phosphoric Acid.— Lack of phos- 
phoric acid is accompanied by dark green leaves. While 
phosphoric acid aids starch formation, it is often re- 



i K. S. R., XII., 434- 2 3. S. R-, XII., 443- 3 R- I. Bui. 40, pp. 85, 1 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 35 

garded as being of less importance than pot-ash. The 
results obtained at the Ohio Station l show that phos- 
phoric acid is the most essential fertilizer for their con- 
ditions, some potash, and, in some cases, nitrogen, being 
also required. I found the same to be true at Briar- 
cliff Manor, N. Y., where 100 pounds of available 
phosphoric acid per acre (equal to 600 pounds acid 
phosphate, 16-17 per cent, available) gave profitable 
returns. My own observations are that an excessive 
application of available phosphoric acid has a marked 
influence upon the foliage, causing it to be small, dark 
green, wrinkled, and apparently stunted in develop- 
ment, with consequently early maturity. In some 
cases the period of growth is reduced six or eight 
weeks, and consequently the yield is low; but, owing 
to the potatoes being mature, the quality is generally 
good. In certain localities, for early potatoes, where 
it is desirable to hasten maturity, the use of fair quan- 
tities of acid phosphate, with a limited supply of nitro- 
gen and potash and no barn manure, is found to be 
good practice. The nitrogen may be supplied in an 
available form as nitrate of soda, since nitrification 
may not be adlive in the soil during the early period 
of growth. 

The Influence of Calcium. — Calcium does not ap- 
pear to be so important as some of the other elements, 
although in some cases it produces a marked increase 
in yield (Fig. 10). If applied in a form which has 
an alkaline action upon the soil — as, carbonate of 
lime or quicklime — it may have an injurious effedl by 



iQhio Bui. 125. pp. 131, 132. 



36 THE POTATO 

producing conditions which aid the development of 
scab. 

Barn Manure. — Applying barn manures is com- 
monly practiced for potatoes with profitable results. 
Lawes and Gilbert 1 showed that only a small portion 
of the nitrogen of farm manures is taken up by the crop; 
thus, with an annual manuring of 15.5 tons per acre, 
containing 200 pounds of nitrogen, continued for twelve 




Courtesy R. I. Exp. Sta. See Bui. 40. 

FIG. IO — INFLUENCE OF LIME UPON POTATOES 
Showing the influence of lime upon the yield, and that it increases the per- 
centage of scabbed potatoes. Right, unlimed. Left, limed. Other fertil- 
izers the same in both cases. 

years, but 8.3 per cent, of the nitrogen was recovered 
in the crop. ' ' These results seem to indicate that this 
. crop is able to avail itself of a less proportion of the 
nitrogen of the manure than any other farm crop. 
Yet, in ordinary practice, farm-yard manure is not only 
largely relied upon for potatoes, but is often applied in 
larger quantities for them than for any other crop." 
Taft, 2 of Michigan, found that twenty-four loads of 
manure per acre gave the largest yield, while at the 



1 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. VI. 2 Mich. Bui. 131, p. 10. 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 37 

Wisconsin Experiment Station twenty loads per acre 
were applied, and larger quantities in Great Britan. 

It seems natural to assume that the beneficial effects 
of manure must largely be due to other causes than 
the addition of plant- food. Among these may be its 
influence on the physical properties of the soil, render- 
ing it more retentive of moisture, more porous and 
more permeable for air and roots, and a better home 
for the useful soil bacteria, which, in fact, it may sup- 
ply. The decomposition of such quantities of organic 
matter, with the consequent liberation of carbon dioxid, 
aids in rendering the mineral resources of the soil more 
available. Generally speaking, it is more economical 
to apply about ten tons of manure per acre and supple- 
ment it with fertilizers, except upon loose open soils 
of poor texture, where the beneficial effect from the 
larger amount should probably be ascribed to its in- 
fluence upon the retention of moisture. It is preferable 
that the manure be rotted somewhat and applied the 
previous fall, while the fertilizers may be applied when 
planting. On some soils, to reduce the danger of dis- 
ease, it may be advisable to apply all the barn manure 
to the previous crop. The application of fertilizers is 
profitable under most conditions in the Eastern and 
North Central States. At New Hampshire Experi- 
ment Station the application of fifteen cords of manure 
increased the yield of marketable potatoes over ioo 
bushels per acre compared with no manure, and the 
use of i ,500 pounds of fertilizers with the same amount 
of manure resulted in a further increase in yield of 
130 bushels per acre. 1 Taft,* 2 of Michigan, shows that 

1 N. H. Bui. in, p. 116. 2 Mich. Bui. 131, p. 10. 



38 THE POTATO 

the average gain from the use of a full application 
of fertilizers was eighty bushels per acre. In Long 
Island, N. Y., a fertilizer mixture containing 4 per 
cent, nitrogen, 8 per cent, available phosphoric acid, 
and 10 per cent, potash has proven satisfactory. It 
is used in amounts varying from 500 pounds to 2,000 
pounds per acre, and in many cases more potash is ap- 
plied than is profitable. The use of 1,000 pounds of 
this fertilizer has given the greatest profit. Where 
1,500 pounds or 2,000 pounds were used the cost of the 
fertilizer was more than the market value of the in- 
creased yield of potatoes. For some years I have used a 
mixture of 100 pounds sulphate of ammonia, 400 to 600 
pounds acid phosphate (16 to 17 per cent, available), 
and 100 pounds muriate of potash with eight to ten 
tons of partially rotted manure per acre on a medium 
loam soil. At New Hampshire Experiment Station 1 
300 pounds muriate of potash per acre gave the best 
results when compared with none, 150 pounds, and 450 
pounds per acre. 

The above mixtures merely show quantities used by 
certain individuals ; each farmer must work out a mix- 
ture suited to his needs. There are other conditions 
than the application of fertilizers. As Dr. W. H. Jordan 2 
pithily puts it : ' ' It is clearly evident that a large 
supply of plant-food does not necessarily insure a 
satisfactory crop. Other conditions which largely per- 
tain to culture — such as texture, humus, and water- 
supply — exercise a controlling influence, and when 
these conditions are unfavorable their effedl is not over- 
come by heavy applications of fertilizer. ' ' 

i N. H. Bui. in, p. 115. 2 (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 18.7, p. 215. 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 39 

It almost invariably occurs that potatoes grown with- 
out any manure mature earlier and contain more dry 
matter, with a correspondingly reduced yield, 1 than 
those grow r n on land manured with barn manures or 
a complete fertilizer. The vigorous growth "induced 
under the latter conditions cannot be matured in the 
same time, hence for an early crop it is unw 7 ise to 
stimulate too vigorous grow T th. 

The Function of Fertilizers. — The prevailing 
opinion in purchasing fertilizers is that they contain 
a certain amount of plant-food — usually nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, or potash — in a more or less available 
form, and that the benefits received from their appli- 
cation is due to the addition of this plant-food to the 
soil. So deeply seated is this theory that all fertilizers 
are bought and sold on this basis, and law r s controlling 
the business have been formulated upon it. The in- 
gredients — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, with 
others — are necessary for the grow T th of all crops, but 
the amounts of the essential ingredients, other than 
the above mentioned, are believed to be present in the 
soil in sufficient quantities to meet all the requirements 
of the crops grown. 

A 300-bushel crop of potatoes has been found to con- 
tain 81 pounds of nitrogen,- 30.6 pounds of phosphoric 
acid, and 79 pounds of potash. Taking 49 New r York 
soils, the chemist found that the surface eight inches 
contained, per acre : 2 

Nitrogen . . . 3,053 pounds, enough for 38 crops 
Phosphoric acid, 4,219 " " " 137 " 

Potash .... 16,317 " " " 207 " 



1 Va. Bui. 92, p. 107. 2 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 130, p. 157. 



40 THE POTATO 

Upon such soils as these applications of fertilizers 
containing phosphoric acid, and, in some cases, potash, 
have been found, by experience, to be most profitable— 
a condition of affairs which could never be ascertained 
from the analyses. It is seldom that the increase in 
yield of crop bears any relationship to the quantity of 
the fertilizers applied. Without either fertilizers or 
manure, but given good tillage, yields of 300 bushels 
of potatoes per acre have been obtained for four suc- 
cessive years on the same piece of land. 1 

The amount of plant-food removed by any crop is 
small, and is obtained from all parts of the soil wherever 
roots extend. Most soils contain certain sufficient plant- 
food to supply the demands of any crop grown thereon 
for an indefinite period of time. To maintain crop pro- 
duction at a profitable point, attention must be paid 
to fadlors other than the supply of plant-food. 

The ingredients applied as fertilizers will, no doubt, 
be found to have a value other than their value as car- 
riers of plant-food. Their value for this purpose may 
be found to be small, while the benefits derived from 
their use may be found to be largely due to their 
chemical adlion upon the soil — e.g., as sanitary agents, 
promoters of the growth of desirable organisms or de- 
stroyers of injurious ones, aids in the formation of de- 
sirable chemical compounds in the soil or neutralizers 
of undesirable compounds, to their influence as stimu- 
lants, and upon the physical properties of the soil. 
That their use is desirable in some cases is evident. 
Why it should be, and how, are matters for investiga- 
tion. 

1 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 191, p. 192. 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 41 

The farmer needs to realize that the soil on his fields 
to-day is not the same as that of last year. Soil is 
changing. The subsoil of yesterday is the soil of 
to-day. Although the amount removed by crops is so 
small that it is a negligable quantity, that removed by 
washing and by the wind is enormous. The muddy 
stream, the bars at the mouths of rivers, the move- 
ment of soils by the w T ind, and even the dust-cloud 
raised w r hen harrowing, show that far more plant-food 
is removed in these ways than in crops, and to check 
these leaks is of more importance than to try to make 
up the loss by the addition of plant-food. The main- 
tenance of a satisfactory amount of organic matter in 
the soil in a proper condition may usually be accom- 
plished by a judicious rotation of crops, manuring, and 
liming. 

11 The old method has been to feed crops with com- 
mercial fertilizers, the new agriculture looks to nature 
for its sources of plant-food. These sources are (1) 
the large stores of unavailable plant-food in all soils, 
(2) the unlimited stores of nitrogen present in the 
air." 1 Research has revealed the fact that soil or- 
ganisms can take plant-food from both of the above 
sources and furnish it to growing crops, and that a 
fertile soil is one in w T hich these processes are going on 
at the highest rate, and that it is necessary to stimu- 
late these biological activities. Humus is a food for 
these organisms. Lime is essential for maintaining the 
soil in a slightly alkaline condition, and for fixing 
some of the compounds formed in the soil; and drain- 



1 Del. Bui. 66, p. 14. 



42 THE POTATO 

age, deep plowing, and thorough tillage are necessary 
to bring air into the soil and stimulate badlerial activ- 
ity. Humus, lime, and tillage are three important fac- 
tors in maintaining a fertile soil, 1 and the farmer who 
understands the value of these is the one who will de- 
rive the most benefit from the use of fertilizers. 

Purchasing and Applying Fertilizers. — Fertil- 
izers may be divided into three classes — viz. : 
(a) Nitrogenous, or those rich in nitrogen. 
(d) Phosphatic, or those rich in phosphorus. 
(V) Potassic, or those rich in potassium. 
Nitrogen occurs in fertilizers, as : 

(i) Nitrates — e.g., nitrate of soda, nitrate of 
potash. 

(2) Ammonium salts — e.g., sulphate of am- 

monia. 

(3) Organic nitrogen — e.g., dried blood, tankage, 

hoof meal, etc. 

Nitrogen as nitrates is immediately available 
as plant-food, is soluble in water, and if 
not taken up quickly by plants is liable 
to be lost in the soil water; hence small 
quantities applied at short intervals give the 
best results. 

Nitrogen as ammonium salts soon becomes 
available in warm weather, and is not so 
liable to be washed out of the soil as when in 
the form of a nitrate. 

Nitrogen as organic matter is more slowly 
available. 



1 Del. Bui. 66, " Soil Bacteria and Nitrogen Assimilation." 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 43 

Phosphorus occurs in fertilizers, as : 

( 1 ) Insoluble phosphate of lime — e.g. , floats, bone 

meal, tankage. 

(2) Soluble phosphate of lime — e.g. , acid phos- 

phate, dissolved bone. 
Insoluble phosphate of lime is considered to 
be but slowly available. It is converted 
into " soluble " by treating it with an acid, 
usually sulphuric acid. 
Soluble phosphate of lime, as a rule, is more 
active than insoluble in promoting plant 
growth, but on acid soils insoluble phos- 
phate often gives better returns. The 
soluble phosphate of lime and a phosphate 
soluble in weak acids constitute the ' ' avail- 
able phosphoric acid ' ' of the chemist. 
Potassium is the valuable ingredient found in : 

Wood ashes, kainit, sulphate of potash, double 

salts, and muriate of potash. 
It usually gives good returns whe'n applied to 
light, sandy, and peaty soils. As kainit 
contains chlorides and muriate of potash is 
a chloride, it is often advisable to apply 
them some time previous to planting the 
crop, in order that the injurious substances 
may be removed by the soil water, chlorides, 
in excess, being injurious to potatoes. 
Value. — All fertilizers may be valued according to 
the percentage of nitrogen, soluble phosphate of lime, 
insoluble phosphate of lime, and potash present. They 
are often valued on the unit system. A unit is one per 
cent, of a ton, or 20 pounds; the ton, 2,000 pounds. 



44 THE POTATO 

Unit Value. — In order to find the unit value of the 
different ingredients, divide the price per ton of the 
fertilizer by the percentage, or number, of units of the 
various valuable ingredients; this will give the cost per 
unit. For example, if sulphate of ammonia be $66.00 
per ton and contains 20 per cent, of nitrogen, then 
66 ■*• 20 = 3.30 per unit (see Table, p. 45). 

If the price per pound be desired, divide the price 
per unit by 20, or the number of pounds in the unit; 
thus, 3.30 ■*- 20 = 16.5 cents per pound. 

For a fertilizer containing several ingredients, find 
the lowest cost of each ingredient in a standard fertil- 
izer — as, nitrate of soda for nitrogen, muriate of potash 
for potash, and acid phosphate for soluble phosphoric 
acid — and compare it with these. 

Purchasing Fertilizers. — In purchasing fertilizers 
it is advisable to write for quotations w 7 ith guaranteed 
analyses, ascertain, as indicated above, the cheapest 
source of the valuable ingredients, and then purchase. 

The fertilizer containing a unit of plant-food at the 
lowest cost is generally the one to buy. In figuring 
the cost always include the freight, cost of hauling, 
and handling; for instance, one ton of muriate of pot- 
ash contains as much potash as four tons of kainit, 
hence the potash as muriate of potash costs only one- 
quarter as much for haulage and handling. The same 
applies to high grade acid phosphate and low grade, 
and unless the filler is of some particular value it is 
wise to take the high grade or concentrated goods. 

Barn Manure. — When not applied to the fields 
as soon as made, it should be stored under cover and 
the excrete from the various farm animals mixed, 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 



45 



TABLE III 

SHOWING THE COST OF THE DIFFERENT INGREDIENTS IN 

CERTAIN FERTILIZERS DURING 1904 





VALUABLE INGREDIENTS 


COST 


NAME OF FERTILIZER 


< 


V - Q 


Percentage 
of Insoluble 

Phosphoric Acid 


S3 

P 


Per 
Ton 


Per 

Unit 


Per 

Lb. 


Nitrate of Soda .... i^. 1 ; 








$ 
44.00 
66.00 

45.00 
38.00 


$ 
2.84 
3-30 

3-46 

3-38 

2.84 

.76 

2.84 

.80 
2.84 

•91 
2.84 

1-57 

.85 

•94 

1. 00 

1. 00 

1 00 

1 00 

.86 

1.42 

.38 
•43 
1.42 
.38 
•43 


Cts. 

14.2 


Sulphate of Ammonia . 
Dried Blood (high 

grade) 

Dried Blood , 


20 

II 

4 








16.5 

i7.3 
16.9 
14.2 






















28.00 
26.00 
27.00 

34.00 

11.00 
15 00 
40.00 
12.00 

26.00 
48.00 
43.00 

1. 10 

1.24 


Fresh Bone Meal . . j 




22 




3-8 




I.25 




14.2 


Steamed Bone Meal . - 
















28 




4 


Fine Ground Bone J 


5 




14.2 










Tankage i 






14 




4-5 
14.2 




7 




Fine Ground Bone J 








Tankage j 






9 




78 


Acid Phosphate. . 
Acid Phosphate .... 
Acid Phosphate .... 




13 
16 
40 


4.2 






4 7 






5.0 




12 

26 

48 • 
50 


5.0 


Double Salts of Potash 
and Magnesia . . . 








5.0 


Sulphate of Potash. . . 








5-0 

4-3 
7.1 










•45 






well-made Barn Ma- 




.54 .... 


1.9 
2.1 


nure ( 








.61 




.63 






7.1 


Another sample of S 




.14 .... 


i-9 
2.1 


Manure ") 








.67 













when the cold cow and pig manure will tend to pre- 
vent excessive loss, b}^ heating, from the horse ma- 
nure. Young growing animals and those bearing 
young and giving milk will give poorer excrete than 



46 THE POTATO 

mature fattening animals. The food and the litter 
used also affect the value of the manure. 

In barn manure the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and 
potash are slowly available, and are arbitrarily reck- 
oned to be worth half what they would cost in fer- 
tilizers. The value of a ton of manure for its physical 
effect upon soils cannot be expressed in dollars and 
cents, but in the Eastern States it may be presumed to 
vary between 50 cents and $1.00 per ton; for while the 
fertilizing ingredients show a value of about $1.25, 
the manure often costs, or is valued at, $2.00 per ton. 

Mixing Fertilizers. — Fertilizer manufacturers lay 
great emphasis on the value of proper mixing, and 
usually charge from $5 to $10 per ton for doing it. 
For example, a commercial potato manure analyzing 
nitrogen, 3 percent., phosphoric acid, 6 per cent., and 
potash, 10 per cent, costs in New Hampshire 1 , in 1904, 
$36.50 per ton. A fertilizer made up by the station 
on the same formula was just as satisfactory, and 
after allowing $1.00 per ton for mixing, it cost $24 
per ton, a saving of $8.50 per ton, or using 1,500 
pounds per acre = $7.10 per acre. 

To compound this fertilizer: 
3 per cent, nitrogen = 60 pounds nitrogen in a ton 

(2,000 pounds). 
6 per cent, phosphoric acid =120 pounds phosphoric 

acid in a ton. 
10 per cent, potash = 200 pounds potash in a ton.* 

Nitrate of soda will furnish nitrogen for immediate 
use, and the nitrogen of the sulphate of ammonia will 



1 N. H. Bui. in., p. no. 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 47 

become available later on, hence we may take 23^ 
pounds nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, and 
36^ pounds in the form of sulphate of ammonia. 
Cottonseed-meal, dried blood, tankage, etc., might 
also be used if desired. 

Pounds 

Nitrate of soda containing 15 J£ percent, nitrogen; to fur- 
nish 23^ pounds nitrogen it requires 150 pounds . 150 

Sulphate of ammonia containing 20 per cent, nitrogen; 
to furnish 36% pounds nitrogen, it requires 184 
pounds 184 

Acid phosphate containing 16 per cent, available phos- 
phoric acid; to furnish 120 pounds phosphoric acid it 
requires 750 pounds 750 

Muriate of Potash containing 50 per cent, potash; to 

furnish 200 pounds potash it requires 400 pounds . 400 

Filling, sand, etc., used to make weight if desired . . 516 



2,000 



Unless care be taken in mixing fertilizers loss of 
valuable ingredients may result. 

1 . Nitrate of soda and soluble phosphate of lime — as, 

acid phosphate — must not be mixed and allowed 
to stand for any length of time, or chemical adlion 
w 7 ill take place, resulting in a loss of nitrogen and 
phosphoric acid. 

2. Do not mix an ammonium salt — as, sulphate of am- 

monia — with any other fertilizer containing free 
lime, as the lime will set free the ammonia, which 
will be lost. 

3. Do not mix soluble and insoluble phosphates to- 

gether. 



48 THE POTATO 

4. Nitrate of soda is very deliquescent, and if left 

mixed with other fertilizers is liable to render the 
whole mass wet and pasty, and so difficult to 
apply. Cottonseed-meal is a very useful source 
for part of the nitrogen of mixtures. If it is nec- 
essary to hold a quantity of nitrate of soda for a 
time, it is advisable to empty it out of the bags, 
as they are liable to ignite spontaneously. When 
emptied do not leave the bags lying in a heap in 
the corner of the barn. Store nitrate of soda in a 
dry place. 

5. Kainit is also very deliquescent, and it is the worst 

potaSsic fertilizer to use in a mixture on this ac- 
count. Sulphate or muriate of potash are better 
for mixtures. 
Applying Fertilizers. — When a horse planter is 
used the fertilizer is usually distributed in the row at 
the time of planting. The fertilizer , may be sown 
broadcast or in the rows as desired, but it should be 
incorporated with the soil and not left on top. 

Water Requirement. — It has been shown clearly 
that the available water content of the soil exerts a 
great influence upon the life of the potato plant, upon 
its assimilation of plant-food, and upon the yield. At 
the Wisconsin Experiment Station ' it was found that 
when two acre inches of water were added in two irri- 
gations in one case the yield was increased 100 bushels 
of salable potatoes per acre, thus showing that the 
right amount of water at the right time is a very im- 
portant factor in determining the yield. Whitson, 2 of 



1 Wis. Report, 1899, p. 213. 2 Wis. Report, 1902, p. 190. 



MANURING AND FERTILIZING 49 

Wisconsin, shows that if it is assumed that under the 
existing climatic conditions of that State 1 8 inches of 
rainfall during the growing season is sufficient for po- 
tatoes, then, on this basis, there was a shortage of 4 
inches or more in ten of the past twenty-one years. In 
Utah ' it was noted that the largest yield was obtained 
from a plat irrigated every eighth day and receiving 14 
inches of water, and another year 2 16.62 inches of water 
with practically no rain produced a yield of 423 bushels 
per acre. The importance of water was also shown at 
the same station, 3 when amounts of water varying be- 
tween 4.3 inches and 9.45 inches were applied between 
July 18 and August 6, and the yield increased with 
the increase in amount of water. At the New Jersey 
Station 4 irrigation increased the yield 36.4 per cent., 
while at Wisconsin the increase has been 159.58 5 bush- 
els per acre over the unirrigated plat, and the average 
gain per year during the six years — 1896-1901 — was 
83.9 bushels per acre. That some risk must be taken 
in irrigating heavy soils in a humid climate was 
demonstrated at Wisconsin. 6 Thus, in one year, 
while there was an increase of 81.4 bushels per acre 
from irrigating sandy land, on heavier land the yield 
was reduced 56 bushels per acre because heavy rain 
followed the second irrigation. 

Corn and potatoes require somewhat similar amounts 
of water to make one pound of dry matter. The figures 
of Wilfarth and Wimmer 7 and Whitson 8 are as follows: 



1 Utah Report, 1893, p. 180. 2 Utah Bui. 26, p. 14. 

3 Utah Bui. 5. 4 N. J. Report, 1900, p. 184. 

5 Wis. Report, 1901, p. 198. 6 Wis. Report, 1900, p. 188. 

7 E. S. R., XIV.. p. 561. 8 Wis. Report, 1902, p. 191. 



5o 



THE POTATO 



WATER USED PER POUND OF DRY MATTER 

WILFARTH AND WIMMER 



Pounds 
Potatoes . . . 200 to 230 
Tobacco . . . 300 to 370 

Buckwheat 400 

Chicory 400 

Mustard 500 

Oats 460 



Pounds 
Corn ....... 270 

Soy-beans 527 

Clover 576 

Oats 503 



King ] has shown that the amount of water required 
to make one pound of dry matter in the tuber and vine 
of potatoes varied between 272 pounds and 497 pounds 
during the years 1892-7, while that for oats ranged be- 
tween 446 and 595 pounds; barley, 375 to 404 pounds; 
peas, 477; corn, 223 to 398 pounds; clover (first crop), 
370 to 582 pounds; clover (second crop), 730 to 983 
pounds. 



1 "irrigation and Drainage." F. H. King. 



CHAPTER VI 

CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 

Source of Seed. — It is often advised that potatoes 
be obtained from another soil and from a more north- 
ern latitude if vigor and delayed maturity are desired, 
and from a southern latitude if earliness is sought; 
but, generally speaking, potatoes bred for a district do 
better there than elsewhere. Few European varieties 
of potatoes are worth growing in America, and any in- 
troduction requires acclimatization and selection. In 
England we noted that northern grown Scotch seed 
did not yield so heavily the first year as the second, 
and the same was true of Maine grow T n seed in the 
Hudson River valley. Brooks, 1 of Massachusetts, 
and Bishop, of Maryland, report exactly to the con- 
trary, although in a subsequent } 7 ear Brinkley, 2 at the 
same station, obtained higher yields from home grown 
seed. The Rhode Island Station 3 found that varieties 
which produced large yields gave increasing yields the 
longer the seed tubers had been home grow T n, and that 
those which produced smaller yields gave diminishing 
yields the longer the seed had been home grown. At 
Louisiana Station 4 home grown seed was equal to, if 
not better, than western, or eastern grown or Boston 
seed. At Georgia Station 5 southern grown seed did 



1 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 1896, pp. 25, 26. 2 Md. Bui. 17, p. 257. 

3 R. I. Report, 1897, p.' 380. 4 I^a. Second Series Bui. 4, p. 77. 

•Ga. Bui. 17, p. 166. 

51 



52 THE POTATO 

best, and the statement is made that the value of seed 
depends more upon the care exercised in the selection 
of the strain than the locality where it is grown. 
Martinet 1 , of France, reports that in several diversified 
trials seed tubers from higher altitudes gave better 
yields under all circumstances. 

Bailey 2 , of Cornell, lodges a criticism against the 
comparison of northern and southern grown seed. He 
believes the variations to be due much more to the 
stock itself — how the plants have been grown and 
handled in previous years — than to any influence of 
latitude. He believes it to be impossible to secure 
stock from different growers which is sufficiently uni- 
form to allow of comparative experimentation. That 
such variation exists is shown by Brooks' 3 observation 
on Beauty of Hebron and Early Rose potatoes. Seed 
potatoes of the same variety obtained from different 
localities gave a variation in yield of about 50 per cent, 
for each variety. Probably the matter is one of indi- 
viduality. It is necessary to study each potato and 
hill, and perpetuate a variety suited to the particular 
environment. If this variety possesses the capacity of 
adapting itself rapidly to other environments it is more 
useful, but it must be able to grow vigorously and 
mature its tubers in order to maintain its value. The 
Ohio Experiment Station 4 found that the selection and 
storage of potatoes is of more importance than the use 
of seed grown on other soil. Kansas Experiment Sta- 
tion 5 found that tubers matured in July were the most 



1 K. S. R., XII., p. 636. 2 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 25, p. 175. 

3 Mass. (Hatch) Report 1899, P- 82 4 Ohio Bui. 76, p. 46. 

6 Kans. Bui. 37, pp. 155, 136. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 



53 



satisfactory seed for the second crop, and the practice 
of using first-crop tubers as seed for the second crop 
is rapidly gaining ground in the South, owing to the 
difficulty of holding seed over. 

Management of Potatoes Previous to Plant- 
ing. — The best way to hold seed potatoes is in cold 
storage at a temperature of 33 to 35 F. Should the 
temperature fall to freezing-point (32 F.) for a short 



Z 6 




FIG. II — A USEFUL POTATO TRAY FOR THE STORAGE AND 
SPROUTING OF SEED POTATOES 

For small quantities, a useful size is 24 x 12 inches. This size will hold 

about forty pounds of tubers, and can be convenient^' handled. The 

larger size holds about eighty pounds of tubers. 

time probably no harm will result, as the freezing- 
point of potatoes is rather lower than that of water. 
As most farmers do not have cold storage some sub- 
stitute must be found. A cool, fairly dry cellar, or a 
root-house, is a very good alternative, or, failing this, 
the potatoes may be pitted outside and covered so that 
no frost can reach them (see "Storing"). Several 
weeks before planting the tubers should be spread out 
on the barn floor two or three thick, in the light, to 
quicken growth. Potatoes vary in the time they take 



54 THK POTATO 

to germinate. Mature potatoes will not begin to grow 
until they have had a period of rest. In some varie- 
ties this may be but a few weeks, while others may 
be held months before they show signs of growth. 
In the island of Jersey and the early potato grow- 
ing districts of the United Kingdom it is customary 
to store the seed potatoes in flat trays (Fig. n). 
The advantages of these are: (i) the seed cannot heat; 
(2) a large quantity can be stored in a room, the trays 
being tiered almost to the roof; (3) seed can be easily 
examined at any time and conveniently moved, hence 
diseases — as, wet-rot, dry-rot, etc. — are more easily con- 
trolled; (4) the potatoes may be sprouted in the trays; 
(5) the potatoes can be moved to the field in and 
planted from the trays. 

The tray is the best means of storing new varieties 
which have been purchased or grown in small quan- 
tities. 

Sprouting Potatoes. — Lavallee 1 and many others 
have found that sprouting seed potatoes in a well- 
lighted room increases the yield and earliness, and 
produces a. more vigorous growth of vines and a larger 
starch content in the tubers. One explanation offered 
for the increase in yield is that the short, thick stem 
developed under the above conditions bears many 
scales or leaves for its hight, and it is from the axils 
of these scales, the place where the scale joins the 
stem, that the tuber-bearing branches are produced 
(Fig. 12). The more scales produced, the more op- 
portunity for the development of tubers. If the tu- 
bers start growth in the dark, either indoors or below 

1 K. S. R., XII., p. 1032. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 



55 



ground, the scales are formed at longer intervals, and 
there are correspondingly fewer places for the produc- 
tion of tuber-bearing branches. Also, in the latter 




Drawing after Pereival 



FIG. 12 — POTATO PLANTED FOUR INCHES DEEP 
{Diagram matic) 

a — Ground level, b — Seed potato, c — Short sprout sent up before plant- 
ing, which sent up two branches, d, e ; d being broken off, and e cutoff aty". 
.£-— The tuber-bearing stem, or rhizome, which bears buds at h, and thickens 
at the end to form a tuber, 7", upon which eyes having buds, k, may be seen. 
m is a tuber-bearing branch, or rhizome, which has not yet begun to form 
a tuber, and r shows where the roots were broken off. Generally four roots 
are sent out for each tuber-bearing branch. 



case, the leaf-bearing branches produced above ground 
are weaker. The system is considered essential in 
the island of Jersey and the early potato growing dis- 
tricts of the United Kingdom, and is practiced to a 
small extent for the second crop in the Southern States. 







F'gs. 13, 14, 15, courtesy Cornell Univ. Dept. of Horticulture. 



FIG. 13 — POTATOES SPROUTED PROPER LENGTH FOR THE PLANTER 
Starting the growth of the tubers in this way is profitable in many places. 




F-IG. 14 — EARLY POTATOES SPROUTED FOR HAND PLANTING 
longer sprouts than these should not be permitted to deve lop. 



56 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 



57 



By sprouting the seed tubers, the Kansas Experiment 
Station 1 have planted potatoes in March and lifted the 
crop on June i . At the Rhode Island Experiment Sta- 
tion 2 potatoes were held in a fairly well-lighted room 
at a temperature of 6o° to 75 Q F. for four to six weeks. 




FIG. 15 — SPROUTS TOO LONG AND WEAK 

This often occurs when potatoes are left in sacks, barrels, or in piles in the 

cellar. As soon as sprouting begins, spread the tubers thinl}' on the barn 

floor, in the light, to check this waste of energy. 

In this time thick buds, one-half to an inch long and 
one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch in diameter, 
formed (Fig. 14). The potatoes may be held at this 
stage for some weeks if necessary by lowering the tem- 
perature. Early Rose potatoes weighing about three 
ounces each w r ere sprouted as described, and planted on 
May 1 beside similar tubers which were unsprouted. 



1 Kan. Bui. 70, p. 149, and Press Bui., March 6, 1899. 
2 R. I. Bui. 36, pp. 9-19. 



58 



THE POTATO 



Part of the crop was harvested July 29, the yield being 
decidedly in favor of the sprouted seed, which lead was 
maintained (see Table). 

TABLE IV 

YIEI.D PER ACRE FROM SEED TUBERS SPROUTED AND NOT 
SPROUTED 



Sprouted 

Not sprouted. . 



Sprouted , 

Not sprouted. 



Date 
Harvested 



July 29 . . . 
July 29.. . 

Aug. 20. . 
Aug. 20. . 



YIELD PER ACRE 



Large 
Tubers 



Small 
Tubers 



Bushels Bushels 
97.96 53.23 
76.10 42.78 



135-47 
94-45 



55-51 
41.90 



Total 



B ushels 
151. 19 

118.88 

190.98 
I36-35 



Gain by 
Sprouting 



Bushels 
32-31 

54-63 



Increase 

from 
Further 
Growth 



Bushels 



33-79 
17-47 



In trials made at Cornell Station by the writer dur- 
ing 1904, with the varieties Sir Walter Raleigh and 
Carman No. 3, increased yields of from 0.9 per cent, 
to 73.7 per cent, resulted from sprouting potatoes in 
the light for 36 days previous to planting, when com- 
pared with holding them in a root-cellar to the time of 
planting. The sprouts on the tubers held in the cellar 
were up to three inches long; those held in the light 
were but one-half to three-quarters of an inch long. 
No misses occurred, except from those sets held in the 
cellar. It seems probable that each variety may have 
its own optimum temperature, as conditions were uni- 
form for both varieties. Eighteen hills were used in a 
plat, and Table V., on page 59, shows the results. 

Another great advantage in sprouting is that it 
gives an opportunity to note, variation and '■ rogue' ' 
the variety. Almost every variety shows a difference 
in the sprout, either in color or habit of growth; one 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 



59 



may have a white, spindly stem, which becomes green 
on exposure; another a short, sturdy stem, which be- 
comes bright red; while another may be purple, and so 
on. So far I have found the lt sprouting stage M the 
most reliable one at which to note differences in varie- 
ties, and varieties of potatoes may be distinguished as 
readily as varieties of other crops. 

TABLE V 



SIR WALTER RALEIGH 



CARMAN NO. 3 



No. 

of 
Plat 



Method and .2. 

Temperature ^ >■ ^ ^ 

of Germination . ^ > ." 

> < - 



Cellar 5o-6o°F... 

Cold Frame bot- 
tom heat BoPF. 
sash off 

Cellar 5o-6o°F... 

Barn, near open 
window 45- 
75 C F 

Cellar 50-60-" F... 

Greenhouse 78- 
9o°F 

Cellar =;o-6o~ F. . . 





II s - 





150 










IOO 





140 





127 





94 




20.12 



20.25 

























s 3 * 


£ 




^s-« 


No. 0/ 

out 


> 

1 










Lbs. 


















26.5 


73.5 





4 


15-25 







122 


21.25 


36.9 





IO; 


16.25 







85 


16.25 


4.1 


1 . 


IJ 7 


15.00 





The disadvantage of the system of sprouting pota- 
toes is that the tubers must be planted by hand on ac- 
count of the liability of knocking the sprouts off if 
passed through the planter. There are many local 
markets in the United States poorly supplied with 
early potatoes, and to supply such a small area of the 
crop could be profitably handled as above described. 
A distinction must be noted between the above method 



60 THE POTATO 

and the slovenly practice of many who allow their 
seed tubers to send out long sprouts before planting, 
which are either broken off intentionally before or 
unintentionally during planting. This practice cannot 
be too strongly condemned. 

The Trays may be made small to hold 40 pounds 
of potatoes, with a handle running lengthwise across 
the top, or to contain 86 to 100 pounds, and handled 
by two men, when the handles run across. The lum- 
ber for the trays, ready sawn in lengths, should be 
purchased at from five cents to ten cents per tray, 
according to size. 

Whole Sets vs. Cut Sets. — Considerable atten- 
tion has been given to the advisability of cutting seed 
tubers. The question is wholly a financial one, as in 
an average year with an ordinary late variety the 
weight of the seed planted is of more importance than 
whether it is whole or cut. Early varieties do not do 
so well when cut, and varieties with white flowers 
seem to be softer in texture and more liable to failure, 
if cut, than those with purple or colored blossoms. 
Some varieties cannot be cut with profit, owing to lack 
of bud-producing eyes. 

The labor of cutting is often greater than the cost 
of the extra seed. When seed is expensive, as when a 
variety is new, it is wise to cut as far as possible to 
secure the largest possible yield in the least time, but 
this course must be followed by selection, or rapid 
deterioration of the variety will result. A potato cut 
into single-eye pieces, and each piece planted in a 
hill, will give a greater yield than it would had it been 
planted whole. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 6 1 

Time to Cut. — Former^ 7 it was advised to cut the 
potatoes a few days before planting. Generally speak- 
ing, this is a mistake. Zavitz 1 reports as the result 
of hundreds of trials, during a period of eight years, 
that potatoes cut the da}* of planting gave 8 bushels 
per acre heavier yield than those cut four to six days 
before planting. Similar results were obtained at the 
Montana Experiment Station. 2 

Size of Seed. — It is a matter of general observa- 
tion, supported by experiments, that large seed usually 
insures a larger yield than small seed. This may be 
due to the greater amount of nourishment furnished to 
the young plants, which enables them to make stronger 
growth, and to the greater hereditary vigor possessed 
by such tubers. Good-sized seed is especially desira- 
able on light soils, and for early maturing varieties. 
Smaller seed from vigorous plants may be as satisfac- 
tory with late varieties, owing to their longer period 
of growth. The advisability of using large or small 
seed, cut or whole, depends largely upon the cost of 
the seed, the season, the culture given, and the price 
realized when harvested. Generally speaking, tubers 
weighing two to three ounces make the most profitable 
seed, as they are worth less for consumption. The 
amount of experimental work which has been under- 
taken to decide the influence of the size of the seed 
tuber upon the yield is enormous, and only a few ref- 
erences can be given here. 

Fischer, 3 of Germany, advises (i) that under ordi- 



1 Ont. Agr. College and Farm Report, 1S9S. P.15S; 1902, p. 127. 

- Mon. Bui. 9, p. 21. 3 E. S. R.. IX.. p. 331: X., pp. 361-367. 



62 THE POTATO 

nary conditions large seed should be used, (2) on good 
soils with heavy fertilizing small tubers and closer 
planting is advisable; but that the small tubers shall be 
the progeny of large tubers grown on well-cultivated 
and fertilized soil,, to prevent degeneration. Tubers 
which are small because the parent plant had not suf- 
ficient vigor to produce any larger are worthless for 
seed. 

At Arkansas Station 1 whole tubers 2 inches to 3 
inches in diameter yielded 18 per cent, more than small 
whole tubers % inches to \% inches in diameter, and 
large cut tubers 15.8 per cent, more than small cut 
tubers. At the Ontario Agricultural College 2 the 
largest yields for four years in succession were from 
planting large seed. Sets weighing one-sixteenth .of 
an ounce and having one eye yielded, on an average, 
for the four years, 44.2 bushels, while two-ounce sets 
having one eye averaged 177.4 bushels per acre, and 
intervening sizes of sets yielded in proportion to their 
size. As the result of eight years' careful experi- 
ments, this station advises that large tubers be cut into 
pieces weighing about two ounces each for sets. 3 

J. C. Arthur, 4 of Indiana, conducted an elaborate 
set of experiments for three } r ears to ascertain the rela- 
tion of the number of eyes on • the seed tuber to the 
product. He found that within certain limits the yield 
will increase with an increase in the weight of the set, 
and that the exadl number of eyes per cutting is rela- 
tively unimportant. With tubers of the same weight 
and variety the number of shoots does not perceptibly 



1 Ark. Bui. 50, p. 28 2 Ont. Agr. Col. Report, 1898, p. 156. 

3 Ont. Agr. Col. Report, 1902, p. 126. 4 Ind. Bui. 42. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 63 

increase with the increase of eyes on the tuber. Seed 
tubers weighing 1^ ounces and carrying 8 to 10 eyes 
sent up, on an average, 5.5 stalks per tuber, while seed 
tubers weighing 3 ounces and having 14 to 18 eyes 
sent up, on an average, 11.3 stalks per tuber. Bisect- 
ing an eye tends to increase the number of stalks, be- 
cause each eye is usually a collection of buds, and some 
would be left uninjured on each piece. The number 
of stalks sent up tended to increase with the size of the 
seed tuber, and the yield increased with the increase in 
number of stalks. 

The Virginia Experiment Station : reports that large 
seed cannot be used at a profit, while small seed is not 
recommended, but that sound tubers of the size of a 
hen's egg and upward are proper seed. 

Green, 2 of Ohio, found that crops from whole seed 
mature a few days earlier than from the same sized 
seed cut in two, and that small cuttings require the 
soil to be in better condition than large cuttings, or 
whole potatoes, in order to secure a good stand and a 
profitable crop. 

Amount of Seed Per Acre — Cost and Influ- 
ence on Yield. — Plumb, 3 of Tennessee Experiment 
Station, found the largest seed tubers to be most pro- 
ductive and the least profitable, while those varying in 
weight from one to three ounces were most profitable. 

At Kentucky Experiment Station 4 the amounts 
planted varied from six bushels per acre when medium- 
sized seed were cut to two eyes to 4S bushels per acre 
where large whole potatoes were planted. At the 



1 Va. Bui. 8, p. 3. - Ohio Second Series Bui.. Vol. III., I., p. 14. 

■Tenn. Bui., Vol. III.. I., p. 6. * Ky. Bui. 22. p 136. 



6 4 



THE POTATO 
TABLE VI 









YIELD PER ACRE 


C6tf/ <?/ 


Value of 
crop per 
acre at 


Balance 


A mount 
of seed 


Weight 
of seed 


Distance 
planted 






seed per 
acre at 


apter 
Paving 


peracre. 
Bushels 


tubers. 
Ounces 


apart. 
Feet 


Bushels 


Number 
of Tubers 


75c. per 
Bushel 


40c. per 
Bushel 


for 
Seed 


64 


12-14 


3 


146 


90,980 


48.00 


58.40 


10.40 


81 


10-12 


2 


220 


135,075 


60.75 


88.00 


17.25 


66 


8-10 


2 


195 


118. 102 


49-50 


78.00 


28.50 


52 


6- 8 


2 


168 


I 15 , 273 


39.00 


67.20 


28.20 


37 


4-6 


2 


158 


108,908 


27.75 


63.20 


35-45 


26 


3- 4 


2 


146 


104,665 


I9-50 


58.40 


38.9c 


18 


2- 3 


2 


141 


81,328 


13.50 


56.40 


42.90 


11 


1- 2 


2 


128 


67,184 


8.25 


51.20 


42.95 



Michigan Experiment Station 1 three varieties were 
tested, with results as shown in the following table: 

TABLE VII 



SIZE OF SEED 


Amount of seed 
per acre 


Yield 
per acre 


Net yield 

in excess of 

seed 


Net gain 
fro7n 
using 
halves 


Halves 

Quarters .... 

Eighths 

Single eyes . . . 
Whole tubers . . 


Bushels Lbs. 

20 19 
9 54 
5 44 
4 10 

41 40 


Bushels 
3i7 
254 
221 
178 
293 


Bushels 
297 
244 
215 

174 
251 


Bushels 

53 

82 

133 
46 



The writer has found from seventeen to twenty 
bushels to be necessary to furnish a good seeding, and 
others have advocated the same amount, 1 although a 
less quantity is frequently mentioned as satisfactory. 

A compilation 2 of experiments made at thirteen 
stations to determine the proper amounts of seed shows: 

1. Within ordinary limits, an increase in seed pro- 
duces a marked increase in total yield and marketable 
potatoes. 



] Mich. Bui. 57, p. 18. 



2 Mich. Bui. 93, pp. 5, 6. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEKD 65 

2. An increase in the size of the seed from one eye 
to half a potato produces an increase in the net value 
of the crop. 

A comparison of the half potato with the two e}^es 
shows that : 

1. For the total yield (large and small) of 95 ex- 
periments, 76 are in favor of the half potato and 19 
in favor of two eyes. 

2. For marketable yield (total less small) of 73 ex- 
periments, 58 are in favor of the half potato and 15 in 
favor of the two eyes. 

3. For net marketable yield (marketable less amount 
of seed) of 30 experiments, 23 are in favor of the half 
potato and 7 in favor of the two eyes. 

4. For net value of crop (value of crop less value of 
seed) of 30 experiments, 22 are in favor of the half 
potato and 8 in favor of two eyes. 

A comparison of the whole potato with the half 
potato shows that : 

1. For the total yield (large and small) of 54 ex- 
periments, 46 w r ere in favor of the whole potato and 8 
in favor of the half potato. 

2. For the marketable yield (total less small) of 42 
experiments, 36 were in favor of the whole potato and 
6 in favor of the half potato. 

3. For the net marketable yield (marketable less 
amount of seed) of 13 experiments, 7 are in favor of the 
whole potato and 6 in favor of the half potato. 

4. For the net value of crop (value of marketable 
less value of seed planted) of 12 experiments, 7 are in 
favor of the whole potato and 5 in favor of the half 
potato. 



66 THE POTATO 

The Value of Bud and Stem' Ends and the 
Middle of the Tuber for Seed. — Many ideas have 
prevailed as to the relative values of different parts of 
the tuber for seed. Some growers advocate the re- 
moval of one end or the other, but thus far the ex- 
periments conducted at a dozen stations, including such 
varying points as Illinois, 1 New Jersey, 2 and North 
Dakota 3 Experiment Stations, show that there is no 
material difference noticable in yield that could be at- 
tributed to the different pieces, and that the two ends 
of a tuber are practically of equal value. 

Viability. — The buds of tubers vary considerably in 
their ability to grow, and the same is true of the tubers 
themselves. Goff , of Wisconsin, 4 when using the vari- 
ety Burbank, obtained a stand varying from 88 to ioo 
per cent, of the potatoes planted. The importance of 
proper moisture content of the soil is shown by the 
results reported in the following table by Woods, of 

Maine: 5 

TABLE VIII 

VARIETY STAND 

Percentage of Cuttings 
that Produced Plants 

Rose 22 

Early Michigan 46 

Hulett's Rust Proof 37 

Mill's Mortgage Lifter 20 

Green Mountain .61 

New Queen 1 

Polaris . 55 

Maggie Murphy - 50 

Irish Cobbler . 65 

Early Ohio 57 

Gem of Aroostock 28 

Bovee 55 

1 111. Bui. 40, p. 132. 2 n. J Report, 1898, p. 308. 3 N. D. Report, 1901, 
pp. 40-42. 4 Wis. Report, 1897, p. 306. 5 Me. Bui. 98, p. 183. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 



6 7 



This poor stand was largely due to a very dry spell 
in May and June, and the differences observed in the 
various varieties may be due to the vitality of the vari- 
eties themselves, or to the way in which they were 
grown and stored, or to both causes. Girard, of 
France, summarized his experiments some time ago, 
showing the influence of the size of the tuber upon the 
"stand " and yield. 

TABLE IX 



WEIGHT OF SEED 


Percentage 

A 'umber of 

Failures 


Percentage 

Weight of 

Crop 


i— Tubers 3.5 oz. each, planted whole .... 
2 — Tubers 3.5 oz. each, cut into two portions 
3 — Tubers 7.0 oz. each, cut into two portions . 
4 — Tubers 10.5 oz. each, cut into three portions 
5 — Tubers 1.75 oz. each, two tubers planted 

together 

6 — Tubers 1.0 oz. each, three tubers planted 

together 


6.0 
12.0 
10.5 
14.5 

3-7 

3-7 


100.00 
69.36 
8200 
74.00 

95.36 

89.12 





The yield of No. 2 is not comparable with the 
others, because the same weight of seed was not used. 
Plats 1 and 3 are probably the best to use for ordinary 
consideration, and would show that from 90 to 95 per 
cent, of the tubers planted should grow, but it is a 
well-known observation that under adverse conditions 
— as, a dry season, ill-fitted land, etc. — a small cutting 
is not so likely to grow as a whole tuber. 

The diagram (Fig. 16) shows that with Carman No. 
3, where twenty plats were noted, there were 3 chances 
in 20 that the germination of the tubers and stand 
would be 100 per cent. , and that it is much more likely 
to be between 91 and 98 per cent, than any other 



68 



THE POTATO 









zs 



iOO 99 % 97 SS 95 91 S3 92 31 90 S3 M 87 S 35 



83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 



FIG. l6 — DIAGRAM SHOWING STAND OF TWENTY PLATS OF 
CARMAN NO. 3 POTATOES 1 

The percentage stand is shown on the base-line. The hight of the cuive 
from the base-line shows the actual number of plats. 



ffiffi 



ffiffl 



I 



m 



FIG. 17 — DIAGRAM SHOWING STAND OF THIRTY-SIX PLATS 
OF EARLY TRUMBULL POTATOES 1 

The percentage stand is shown on the base-line. The hight of the curve 
from the base-line shows the actual number of plats. 

number, although the average as usually worked out 
would show 93.5 per cent. 

With Early Trumbull, using seed showing the rosette 
disease {Rhizoctonia solant) and some not showing it, 
treated with various fungicides, the average germina- 



1 From data in Ohio Bui. 145, p. 21. 



CONSIDERATIONS OF SEED 69 

ting power for 36 plats is 73. 8 per cent. Yet, here again 
this does not convey a true impression, as on six plats 
all of the tubers germinated, and the table shows that 
there is a greater chance of securing a stand of between 
83 and 98 per cent, than lower. 1 

The viability of tubers is injured or ruined if they 
heat or sweat to any extent; hence, if they have been 
treated with a solution, as for scab, it is essential that 
they be planted at once or spread thinly to dry. Po- 
tatoes may be ruined for seed purposes, if frozen, or if 
shipped in bags or barrels which have contained sub- 
stances injurious to the buds — as, sugar, nitrate of soda, 
etc. ; and even moving them on the farm in unwashed 
sugar-bags has been found to be dangerous. Immer- 
sion in water for more than a day may destroy the 
buds, and probably cause the tuber to decay in a few 
days. By this means potatoes have been destroyed in 
pits and in the field when floods have occurred. Soak- 
ing them in too strong a solution of formalin or other 
preservative is liable to reduce viability, because the 
formalin tends to preserve the tuber and prevent its de- 
composition. 

Potatoes which have been subject to diseases maybe 
weakened and their vitality impaired. 



1 From data in Ohio Exp. Sta. Bui. 145, p. 21. 



CHAPTER VII 
VARIETIES 

Selecting a Variety. — For general farming it is 
advisable to grow only a few varieties. Most success- 
ful growers seldom have half a dozen growing for mar- 
keting, and usually one is selected as more suitable 
than the rest. The beginner is advised to select a 
variety from the more thoroughly tested kinds that 
have done well in his immediate vicinity and on his type 
of soil. The seed should be obtained from a reliable 
grower or a responsible seedsman. The importance 
of growing the best varieties cannot be too strongly 
emphasized. To many a potato is a potato, and any- 
thing is used for seed. Such haphazard methods 
cannot survive. Potatoes are grown for human con- 
sumption, and the public taste must be considered. 
Good quality and good yield are required. In some 
localities good quality potatoes appear to be grown in 
spite of adverse conditions, but not all of the crop can 
be produced in this way. 

Some of the points to consider in selecting the 
variety are : 

i . Good cooking quality and flavor. This is partly 
influenced by the soil, season, ability to mature 
before frost, etc. 
2. The yield. The late maturing varieties usually 
yield heavier than the early varieties. Yield is 
influenced, among other things, by the adapta- 
bility of the variety to the district and soil. 
70 



VARIETIES 71 

3. Ability to resist diseases. The potato is so sub- 

ject to disease that this is now of prime impor- 
tance in a variety in the Eastern States, although 
not so important in parts of the Trans- Missis- 
sippi area. 

4. The color of the skin and tuber. In the Eastern 

States red varieties are not in favor at present, 
a white-fleshed and white-skinned tuber being 
preferred. In the South red-skinned varieties 
are sought. 1 

5. The nahtre of the skin. A netted, or rough, skin 

is preferred. 

6. The shape. Some markets discriminate in favor 

of a particular shape, the flat-round and oval 
generally being popular shapes. 

7. The depth and frequency of eyes. Potatoes with 

deep and numerous eyes are not economical in 
preparation for cooking. 

8. The time of maturity . This is essential to know 

before planting, in order to facilitate the dis- 
tribution of farm work and determine whether 
it is likely to mature in the locality. 

9. The haulm. 

10. The leaf. 

11. The vigor of the variety. This is important, 

although it is of equal importance to obtain a 
vigorous strain of a variety, as wide variations 
are noted in the same variety. 

12. Te?idency to make second growth. 



1 Tex. Bui. 71, p. 9. 



7 2 



THE POTATO 



13. Trueness to type. It is essential that the seed 
be as represented. As none but an expert can 

tell the different 

varieties apart, 

seed should be 

obtained from a 

reliable grower 

or a responsible 

seedsman. 

1. Cooking quality 

and flavor are two of 

the fadlors which 

determine culinary 

value. They are 

distinct. Cooking 

quality is recognized 

in a boiled potato by 

mealiness or soggi- 

FIG. l8 — SECTION OF A POTATO OF ^ ~~. 

poor cooking quality ness. 1 nis appears 

P— Envelope, or Periderm, consisting of an to depend Upon the 
inner and outer layer. P.L- Pigment layer, physiological StrUC- 
where coloring-matter of the skin is found. 

^.C-External Cortical, or Cambium layer, ture of the tuber, and 
usually poor in starch. /.C-Internal Cor- is not necessarily COU- 
tical, or Cambium layer, rich in starch. E.M . " 

—External Medullary layer, rich in starch. nected With chemical 
I.M— Internal Medullary layer, or pith, or composition (Ki°TS 
water-core, poor in starch. 
The objectionable features of this tuber are J 8, 19). A potato 
large pith area and lack of uniformity in showing Uniformity 
cellular structure. Each layer is readily rec- . . 

ognized, and each one varies in the amount of m tile QlStrlDUtlOn OI 
time required for cooking; hence, it is of poor starch in the VarioUS 
cooking quality. (Compare with Fig. 19.) 1 

layers may be con- 
sidered to be of better quality than one not showing 
this uniformity. Immature potatoes tend to be soggy 




VARIETIES 



73 



Mealiness is due to 
cell into one 



mass 



the union of the 
and the rup- 




when cooked 
starch grains in a 
ture of the cell 
walls during cook- 
ing. Sogginess 
occurs when the 
cell walls retain 
their form. Opin- 
ions differ as to 
what constitutes 
good cooking 
quality. Amer- 
icans like a white, 
mealy, or flour}', 
potato. The 
French prefer a 
yellow, soggy 
potato which re- 
tains its shape 
when boiled. 

Good cooking 
quality can be de- 
termined by cook- 
ing. The common 
method is to take 

a sample and steam or boil some of the potatoes. 
When cooked the potato should be dry and flour}', free 
from wetness, and readily break to pieces on slight 
pressure, or be readily reduced to a coarse meal free 
from hard lumps. The particles should glisten as 
though crystalline, and the potato should have a white 
color, which is retained when cold. Potatoes which 



FIG. 19 — SECTION OF A POTATO OF 
GOOD COOKING QUALITY 
(Compare with Fig. 18.) 
The desirable features of this tuber are well- 
netted skin, showing maturity; large Internal 
Cortical (/.C)and External Medullary (E.M.) 
layers, which are rich in starch ; small pith 
area (I.M.), with marked uniformity in cellu- 
lar structure. The different la3'ers nearly ap- 
proach each other in appearance, and cook 
uniformly. 



74 "THE POTATO 

are yellow when cooked, or turn dark or black, are 
not considered of good quality, even if the flavor is 
good, and can be sold only to a low-class trade. 
Tubers must not be hollow in the center, as this gives 
rise to a hard, dark-colored core, which is decidedly 
objectionable if potatoes are to be mashed. 

Some varieties will cook better if they have been 
kept ; they are, in other words, for spring use. Thus, 
in New York, Carman No. 3, White Star, and Doe's 
Pride come in this category. 

The flavor should be mild, and free from earthiness. 

2. The yield. The average yield of potatoes from 
one plant in the United States is about half a pound. 
Having weighed the yield of hundreds of potato 
plants during the past year, we find that in the case of 
Early Ohio one plant yielded three tubers weighing 
half an ounce, while another yielded thirteen tubers 
weighing two and a half pounds. The latter yield is 
eighty times the former. In late varieties plants yield- 
ing four pounds of tubers were found. In some of the 
recent English productions whole plats would average 
six pounds of tubers per plant, while individual plants 
have yielded over twenty pounds of potatoes, as many 
as 150 potatoes being set on one plant. 1 These facfts 
emphasize the value of the farmer selecting seed him- 
self and eliminating the poor plants. All the tubers 
from the best plants should be saved and planted sep- 
arately to produce the seed for the following year. 
The expenses of growing a poor and a heavy crop 
vary little. The only additional cost of the latter is 



1 Gardener's Chronicle, Oct. 15, 1904, pp. 276-278. 



VARIETIES 75 

a little more for digging. The variety controls the 
yield to a large .extent, and there is much more like- 
lihood of obtaining a 300-bushel crop from a variety 
capable of yielding 600 than from one whose maxi- 
mum yield is 300 bushels. This fact is realized, 
and the high prices paid in recent years in Great 
Britain for seed potatoes of good qualit} r , heavy yield- 
ing, and disease-resisting varieties are legitimate and 
proper recompense to the men who have the skill to 
breed such. These new varieties are profitable to 
grow T because there is an assurance that the crop will 
yield well, and that it will keep well; hence there is an 
opportunit}- to hold it until it can be sold at a profit. 
These farmers realize that the best is none too good, 
and that it is useless handling varieties that are out of 
date. The potato grower of Great Britain and Europe 
must be up to date if he is to stay in the business. 
High-priced seed receives more care in storage and is 
handled more intelligently, the seed-bed is better pre- 
pared, and the result is better farming. The farmer 
who grows such crops is a more thoughtful and better 
business man, as slovenly methods have to be aban- 
doned. 

Yield is influenced by the size and number of tubers 
at a root. Uniformity and good size are desired. 
Potatoes vary in size from almost nil to six pounds 
each or more. In Doe's Pride one plant set 21 tubers, 
varying in size between 1-10 ounce and 6]/ 2 ounces; 
in other words, one potato was 65 times larger than 
the other. In the East potatoes over 8 ounces in 
weight are large. Medium-sized tubers of merchant- 
able value vary between four and eight ounces. Sec- 



76 THE POTATO 

onds between two and four ounces, and tubers less 
than this weight, are hardly worth picking up. 

3. Ability to resist diseases. No varieties can be 
termed ' ' disease proof, ' ' but many varieties are better 
disease-resisters than others. Stuart, of New Hamp- 
shire, found that the variety Hulett's Rust Proof was 
the only one that was disease-resistant out of several 
varieties, although the varieties Dakota Red, Green 
Mountain, New Queen, and Enormous showed some 
resistance. Hulett's Rust Proof falls below the re- 
quirements in other respedls and is of little value, and 
in Minnesota has been found to be subject to disease. 
At Ontario Agricultural College, Carman No. 3 and 
Stray Beauty resisted disease well. At Minnesota 
Experiment Station, Rural New Yorker and Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh showed some resistance. 2 

4. The color of the skin and tuber. Many of the 
colored-skinned varieties of potatoes, and those show- 
ing a blush of pink — as, the Beauty of Hebron, Early 
Rose, etc. — belong to a type which have white blooms'. 
They are generally early maturing, rather liable to dis- 
ease, and of good quality, according to the American 
standard. The colored-skinned early varieties are gen- 
erally more readily sold than the late ones, although 
in some distridls colored-skinned potatoes are not ob- 
jedled to on the market. All colored-skinned potatoes 
are not deficient in vigor. Some are among the best 
disease-resisting and best-flavored varieties, but the 
red color of some weak varieties has rendered some 
growers skeptical of all. 



1 Minn. Bui. 87, p. 2. 2 Minn. Bui. 87, p. 10. 




< i 

« -a 

< = 

— OB 



^ -d 






78 THE POTATO 

5. The nature of the skin. The skin may be thick, 
medium, or thin. Some growers claim that thick- 
skinned varieties are of better quality than thin-skinned 
ones, but such correlation does not always exist. 
Potatoes grown on sandy soils usually have smoother 
skins than those grow r n on heavy loams. Some va- 
rieties develop a netted, or rough, skin as they mature 
in storage, although such may not be apparent at 
harvest-time. The rough, or netted, skin in these 
cases appears to denote maturity, and this may account 
for the common idea that a rough-skinned potato is of 
good quality. The size and type of netting (Fig. 20) 
varies with the variety, and the conditions under 
which it is grown. 

6. The shape. Most of the recent introductions, 
exclusive of the Early Rose type, have had a tendency 
to partake of the flat-round or oval (Fig. 21). These 
shapes have been sought because such potatoes appear 
to be of better quality consistent with an economical 
shape and shallow eyes. The probable explanation is 
that in a flat-round or thinnish potato there is a greater 
surface in proportion to the bulk. The greater the 
surface the larger the percentage of the tuber taken 
up in the cortical layer and outer medullary layer (Fig. 
18). These are the starch-bearing areas, and as they 
are increased the inner medullary layer, or pith, which 
has little starch, is diminished, thus rendering the 
potato more uniform. Whatever shape is desired can 
be be obtained, but a potato should be true to shape. 
The tendency of a tuber to become pointed or drawn 
out at the tip or butt end, especially if the variety is 
a flat-round or round, indicates lack of vigor (Fig. 21). 



VARIETIES 79 

7. Depth and freqicency of eyes. Deep eyes (Fig. 21), 
to some extent, are regarded as associated with robust- 




FIG. 21 — THREE FAVORITE SHAPES OF POTATOES 
{Upper row l the broad surface ; lower rozi\ the narrow surface.) 
Beginning on the right, the small one is a flat-round; the center one, kid- 
ney; the largest one. on the left, elongated oval. Notice the shallow, wide 
eyes on the latter; they are the most desirable. The eyes of the flat-round 

are too deep. 

ness and, frequently, coarseness. The}' are wasteful 
in peeling. Deep eyes tend to hold moisture, which 
hastens decay when the potatoes are stored. 

8. Time of maturity. In the Northern States pota- 



8o 



THE POTATO 



toes are classified into early, medium or second early, 
and late varieties, according to the time they take to 
reach maturity. Early varieties may mature in 70 to 




FIG. 22 — THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING UPRIGHT HAULM AND 
PRESERVING THE FOLIAGE IS NOT SUFFICIENTLY APPRECIATED 

Plant photographed early in September, 1904, when many others near were 
dead (C U. Farm). Upright haulm facilitates late cultivation and spray- 
ing. The foliage dries quickly, and then is not so favorable for the growth 
of spores of rot. 

90 days after planting; second earlies, in 90 to 130 
days, while late varieties may continue to grow for 
200 da}^s. 

9. The haulm. The haulm and leaf are receiving 
more attention to-day than formerly. The size of 
haulm has an influence upon the distance apart of 
planting. Large haulm is more trouble to spray, re- 



VARIETIES 8 1 

quiring more solution, and it is always lying over the 
ground when the last spraying ought to be given, and 
is in the way at lifting- time, whether the potatoes are 
raised by hand or digger. Modern breeders aim to 
produce a short haulmed, upright, heavily leaved top, 
because the upright habit of growth (Fig. 22) is more 
likely to keep clear of disease than a spreading habit, 
owing to water being shed from the former more read- 
ily than from the latter, and not offering a foothold to 
the disease spores (Fig. 37). Plants whose branches 
lie on the ground are more liable to disease because 
they cover a greater area, their leaves, touching the 
ground, are almost always damp from contact with it, 
and sun and wind cannot so readily reach them. Very 
tall haulmed varieties are readily beaten down by 
storm and wind, and in this state they cannot dry so 
readily; hence, the)' fall in a clammy mass, very favor- 
able for the growth of disease spores. 

Varieties with strong, hardy haulm suffer less from 
spring frosts. Late varieties usually have taller haulm 
than first early varieties. Some varieties make their 
heaviest growth of foliage late in the season, and in 
this way are not so subject to attacks of early blight. 

10. The leaf. The British disease-resisting varieties 
have hard, thick leaves. Whether the thickness of the 
leaf is an important factor in their resistance to rot (Phy- 
tophthora infestans) is not determined. The fact that 
spraying the upper surface of the leaf tends to prevent 
blight would seem to show that access to the inside of 
the leaf is obtained by growth through the cell walls 
as well as through the stomata, on its under surface. 
If this be true, then the thickening and hardening 



82 . THE POTATO 

of the cuticle and the palisade cells (Fig. 34), or 
thick cells on the upper surface of the leaf, will no 
doubt prevent many spores from reaching the inside 
cells of the leaf. They may germinate on the surface, 
but not enter, unless they find some place where the 
leaf has been injured. The punctures of the flea- 
beetles are, on this account, of great importance, as 
they furnish an entrance to the inner cells (Fig. 40). 

N. A. Cobb, of Australia, has shown that in the 
case of wheat the varieties most resistant to rust (Pue- 
cinia graminis and P. rubigo vera) , none being abso- 
lutely resistant, have narrow, stiff, upright foliage, 
while those most liable to attacks have broad, flabby, 
and pendant foliage. In the plants resistant to rust 
the cuticle of the leaf is much thicker than in the 
others, and is so thick that the rust spores, when they 
germinate on the outside of the leaf, cannot penetrate 
it, or if they do succeed in entering the leaf through 
stomata, the threadlike growths of the parasite cannot 
rupture the cuticle wall to frudlify ; and, further, some 
wheats have stomata so narrow and are so well cov- 
ered with wax that the germinating, threads of the 
rust spore fail to enter every time. These circum- 
stances seem to support the claim that the tough, thick- 
walled, hard, dry leaf is the one to seledrt for disease- 
resistant powers. It has been observed that plants of 
the potato family having this type of leaf are fairly free 
from fungus leaf diseases. It is essential that the 
leaves of the potato be abundant to insure a good yield. 

1 1 . The vigor of the variety. Vigor is the power 
stored in a plant which enables it to overcome difficul- 
ties at different periods of growth. A variety must 



VARIETIES 83 

have vigor. If not, it may fail to establish itself dur- 
ing the early part of its career, being a shy budder ; 
it may be readily injured by frost, heat or cold, 
drouth or a wet period, and, having little recuperative 
power, will give small returns for the labor bestowed 
upon it. If it survives to tuber-formation time it will 
probably fail then. Plants or varieties showing lack 
of vigor must be discarded. Some varieties have short 
staying power; the}' appear to be vigorous for one or 
two years, and then suddenly collapse. Others have 
great staying power — as, Early Rose, which has been 
prominent for over forty years. 

The statement is sometimes made that modern vari- 
eties are not so long-lived as their ancestors — that they 
are deficient in staying power. If the statement were 
true, it might be explained by saying that new vari- 
eties are produced more frequently, and that on account 
of their heavier yielding power or better quality they 
displace the old ones. The facts seem to show that 
modern potato breeders have more than maintained 
vigor and staying power. Hays, of Minnesota, and 
others, place the life of a good modern variety at about 
thirty years. This seems to be accepted by man}', 
both here and abroad. Dr. Hunter, of England, in 
his " Geological Essays," ] writing about one hundred 
years ago, states ' ' that varieties continue in vigor 
about fourteen years, after which the produce gradually 
declines." Shirreff and T. A. Knight held similar 
views ; the latter wrote 2 that ' ' not a single healthy 



1 "Geological Essays," ' Exp. 14, p. 348. 

2 Hort. Trans., Vol. I., and Miller's " Gardeners' Dictionary," ed. 1807, 
'Potatoes." 



84 THE POTATO 

plant of any sort of potato that yields berries, and 
which was in culture twenty years ago, can now be 
produced.' ' So late as 1838 this idea was accepted by 
the horticulturists of England. 1 It is interesting to 
note that the average yield of potatoes in England a 
hundred years ago is stated to vary between 185 and 
300 bushels, and sometimes 440 bushels, per acre. 
The average yield to-day is about 230 bushels, but 
some growers produce 750 bushels per acre frequently. 
The average improvement in the quality of the tubers 
is greater than the average improvement in yield. 
Formerly the potatoes w r ere grow T n largely for stock, 
and w r ere of poor flavor and bad cooking quality. 

Some new varieties make vigorous growth, and, be- 
coming bark-bound, the skin cracks. Such varieties 
are regarded as of coarse and inferior quality, and lack- 
ing in appearance. This character may be eliminated 
by judicious selection. Deficiency in vigor is indi- 
cated by the formation of misshapen tubers drawn 
out at either end, the presence of second grow T th, weak 
buds, lack of uniformity in texture— as, hardness at 
the ends of the tubers when cut, especially brittleness 
of texture. Tubers showing any such characteristics 
should not be planted. 

When potatoes are planted 15 inches apart in 36- 
inch rows, there are 11,616 plants per acre. If each 
plant had sufficient vigor to yield three tubers, each 
weighing half a pound, or four weighing six ounces 
each, a yield of 290 bushels of salable potatoes per 
acre is assured. No one can afford to use seed of less 
vigor than this. 

1 Don's" Gardeners' Dictionary," 1838, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. 



VARIETIES 85 

12. Tendency to 7nake secojid growth. Second growth 
(Fig. 38) is most prevalent in a season when drouth 
is followed by a wet period. The drouth checks 
the development of the tubers, causing them to begin 
to mature, while the subsequent wet period restarts 
growth. If one variety or a plant does not show r any 
such abnormal growth, it is regarded as being more 
vigorous; hence, other things being equal, such should 
be used for seed, and all showing second growth 
should be rejecfted. Abnormalities in shape may be 
due to contadl with stones or hard lumps. 

13. Triteness to type. This may be viewed as em- 
bracing several considerations. In new varieties there 
is always more or less tendency to lose the features for 
which the variety has been selecfted. The type is then 
said to be insufficiently fixed, and often those which 
depart from the type degenerate. In such cases selec- 
tion must be continued. 

Many varieties are deliberately or unintentionally 
sold for something else. Mixtures of varieties are 
sold as one. Good varieties are often renamed and 
sold by unscrupulous seedsman and others as some- 
thing new. There is considerable duplication of 
varieties of potatoes; 1 thus, Brooks, of Massachusetts, 2 
believes, after growing the following varieties, that King 
of the Earliest and Early Ohio, Salzer's Earliest and 
Bliss Triumph, Mills' Banner and Livingston Banner 
are identical, and that White Beauty and Cambridge 
Russet differ but slightly. Mills' Mortgage Lifter is 
often sold as Burpee's Extra Early. Some dealers 



1 Wyo. Bui. 32, p. 65. 2 Hatch (Mass.) Sta. Report, 1899, p. 81. 



86 THE POTATO 

have been known to deliberately rename a well-known 
variety and sell it as their own, and as a new and 
heavy yielding variety. 

Dakota Red is sold for Bliss Triumph, although in- 
ferior in quality. The above is not a complete list, but 
will show that this state of affairs exists, and empha- 
sizes the importance of dealing with a firm who have a 
reputation to lose. 

Testing Varieties. — It is advisable to secure 
copies of experiment-station literature and papers in 
which variety trials are reported. The best variety 
for one soil is not the best for another. The only way 
to have the best is to make a trial with small quanti- 
ties of different varieties. Secure seven to ten pounds of 
seed of each new variety, and plant, say, three rows of 
each on a piece of land as uniform as obtainable, using 
a standard variety, called A, as a check. If we take 
B, C D, E as four untried varieties, buy the seed in 
the fall, hold it all, including the A seed, under simi- 
lar conditions, and plant under similar conditions in the 
following order: A,B, C y A, D y E } A. Treat all plats 
alike in every respect, dig when ripe, and weigh the 
crop. If the A plats yield approximately the same, 
then the deduction is that the soil conditions are fairly 
uniform. If not, compare the yield of each plat with 
the yield of the A plat nearest to it. Conduct the 
trial for three years. I find that the second and 
third years' results are better than the first, as the 
conditions are more uniform, although if a variety 
is a long way ahead the first year and shows up well 
in other ways, I would increase the area under it at 
once. 



VARIETIES 87 

Relationship of Variety to Soil.— Disappointment 
and loss are often the result of not knowing and study- 
ing the environment best suited to a variety. Each 
variety, and probably each individual in a variety to a 
lesser degree, has its idiosyncrasies, and, to succeed, 
these must be recognized and catered to. The failures 
in potato-growing deserve more attention. The suc- 
cesses take care of themselves. The careful grower 
takes note of the failure and the success. Both have a 
cause or causes, and the climatology and character of 
the soil may be among them. Some varieties do better 
on a heavy loam than on a sandy loam, probably be- 
cause the former is cooler, owing to its greater moisture 
content, and under such conditions these varieties give a 
higher return of starch per acre and are of better qual- 
ity. Other varieties, as those inclined to be coarse 
and rough, do better on sandy loams. In this class are 
Eureka and Uncle Sam. 

Some require a rich loam soil — as, Early Ohio, 
Bovee, Early Harvest, Early Michigan. T. L. Wat- 
son, 1 of Virginia, also noted that some varieties want 
more plant-food than others, other conditions being 
the same. Others are more cosmopolitan — as, Car- 
man No. 3, Early Rose. 

The Most Popular Varieties.— With the object 
of ascertaining the best variety as determined by 
yield in different places, a letter was addressed to the 
director of each experiment station and to some grow- 
ers; 49 replies were received; 28 men mentioned vari- 
eties which had yielded or appeared to be best in their 



1 Va. Bui. 56, p. 144. 



88 THE POTATO 

districts. In all 59 varieties were mentioned. Tabu- 
lating the data presented, we find that 21 of these 
varieties were mentioned twice or more. In the South- 
ern and Southern Trans- Mississippi States all vari- 
eties mature about the same time and may be classed 
as earlies, and early maturing varieties are usually 
planted. Of these and the early varieties, as grown in 
the North, Bliss Triumph and Early Ohio are the most 
popular with ten votes each; Six Weeks Market re- 
ceived five; Early Rose, four ; Burpee's Extra Early 
and Bovee, three each; while Beauty of Hebron, Early 
Fortune, Eureka, Irish Cobbler, Michigan, and Polaris 
had two each. Among late varieties, Green Mountain 
leads with eight votes, Carman No. 3 had five, 
Rural New Yorker and Sir Walter Raleigh had four 
each, and Burbank, Carman No. 1, Vermont Gold 
Coin, Rural New Yorker No. 2, and Freeman had 
two each. Although the above method of determi- 
nation may not be absolutely correal, undoubtedly the 
varieties mentioned are among the favorites. 

Station Leading Varieties 

1. Alabama, Tuskegee . Early — Bliss Triumph. 

Medium — Early Rose. 
Late — Peerless. 

2. Alabama, Auburn . . Triumph. 

3. Arizona Burpee's Extra Early, Triumph, 

Early Rose. 

4. Arkansas ..... Red Bliss, Ohio, Michigan, Six 

Weeks, Crown Jewel. 

5. California .... Burbank. 

6. Canada, Ontario . . Extra Early — Pinkeye, Stray 

Beauty, Early Ohio. 
Medium — Burpee's Extra Early, 

Rose of the North. 
Late — Empire State, American 

Wonder. 



VARIETIES 



8 9 



Station Leading Varieties 

7. Colorado Medium — Queen of the Valley, 

Rose Seedling. 
Late — Pearl, Rural No. 2. 

8. Connecticut . . . . Late — Green Mountain, Car- 

man No. 3, Rural New Yorker. 

9. Illinois Early — Early Ohio. 

10. Iowa Vermont Gold Coin. 

11. Kansas Early — Six Weeks. 

Medium — Early Ohio. 

12. G. L. Foss, 

Fort Fairfield, Me. . . Early— Early Ohio. 

Medium — Burpee's Extra Early= 
Late — Green Mountain. 

13. Maryland Late — McCormick. 

14. Massachusetts . . . Beauty of Hebron, Early Rose, 

Early Andees, Early Dawn, 
Triumph, Salzer's Earliest, 
I.X.L., Steuben, Early Nancy, 
Million Dollar. 

15. Montana Early — Six Weeks Market, Early 

Ohio. 
Medium— White Ohio, Rural 

New Yorker. 
Late — Freeman, White Main. 

16. Nebraska, Bui. 80 . . Early — Early Ohio. 

Late — Rural New Yorker. 

17. New Hampshire . . Late — Green Mountain, Wash- 

ington. 

18. New York, Cornell .• . Early — Early Ohio, Bovee. 

Late — Green Mountain, Carman 
No. 3, Sir Walter Raleigh. 

19. New York, Geneva . Early — Michigan, Early Trum- 

bull. 
Late — Carman No. 3, Uncle 
Sam, Whiton's. White Mam- 
moth, Sir Walter Raleigh. 



90 



THE POTATO 



Station 
19^. Prof. Stewart, 

Geneva, N. Y. 



20. Long Island, N. Y. 

21. North Carolina . 



22. Ohio 



23. Oklahoma . . 

24. Pennsylvania 



25. Rhode Island 



26. Tennessee . . . 

27. Texas, Bui, 71 . 



28. M. Alexander, 

Charlotte, Vt. 



29. Washington 



Lidding Varieties 

Rural New Yorker No. 2, Car- 
man No. 3, Green Mountain, 
Sir Walter Raleigh. (Most 
popular late varieties in the 
State, apparently.) 

Carman No. 1, Green Mountain. 

Bliss Triumph (both red and 
white skinned), Bovee, Eu- 
reka, Houlton Rose, selected 
strains of Early Rose. 

Late — Green Mountain, Wash- 
ington. 

Early Ohio, Six Weeks. 

Medium — Bovee, Early Fortune. 

Bliss Triumph, Early Ohio. 

Early — Extra Early Crusaders, 
Six Weeks, Irish Cobbler, 
Beauty of Hebron. 

Medium — J. A. Totten, Free- 
man. 

Early — Early Harvest, Early 
Fortune, Polaris. 

Late — New Queen. 

Triumph. 

Triumph (generally grown), 
Thorburn, Irish Cobbler, Eu- 
reka. 

Early — Triumph. 

Medium — Polaris, Garfield, 

Early Vermont, Charles 

Downing. 

Late — Green Mountain, Dela- 
ware, Alexander's Prolific, 
Dakota Red, Gold Coin, Sir 
Walter Raleigh, Carman No. 1, 
Carman No. 2. 
Burbank. 



- CHAPTER VIII 
PLANTING 

Distance Apart. — As potato roots spread laterally 
to a distance of 2 to 2.5 feet, the potatoes might be 
planted in rows four to five feet apart without the 
roots overlapping in the feeding-ground. The advan- 
tage of such distances would be that intertillage could 
be maintained until quite late in the season, and that 
there would be opportunity to spray the plants as late 
as one wished. Whether such distances would be eco- 
nomical is a local question largely controlled by the 
supply of moisture available for the crop. In Colo- 
rado the potatoes are usually planted in rows four feet 
apart. In humid climates 30 to 36 inches is more 
common, and 27 inches and even less is profitable in 
some cases. Other factors are the value of land and 
the cost of labor. Where land is low in value and 
labor high, wider rows and the use of machinery are 
necessities. With high-priced land and low-priced 
labor the rows may be much closer together, and a 
much larger yield per acre ma}' be possible. 

The most suitable distance probably varies with each 
variety; it certain^ varies with some. For spraying 
purposes a variety with long, straggling haulm requires 
more space than one with short, upright haulm. Most 
of the early varieties belong to the latter type, and such 
are planted closely. Rows 27 to 30 inches apart, with 
plants 8 to 12 inches asunder, for early varieties, and 

91 



92 



THE POTATO 



30 to 33 inches, with plants 12 to 18 inches asunder, for 
late varieties, are suggested for most Eastern conditions. 
For irrigation experiments in Wisconsin, King 1 used 
30 x 15 inches with success. In Europe, where heavy 




FIG. 23 — EARLY MATURING VARIETIES 

These generally have dwarf haulm, and may be planted much closer 

together than the later ones. This plant grew about one foot tall. 

yields are obtained, the potatoes are planted close to- 
gether; thus, Vuyst, 2 of Belgium, and L,avalee 3 advise 
that the rows be 24 inches apart and the plants 12 
inches asunder, because of the increased yield, the 
hastened maturity, and better- formed tubers. West- 
ermeier, 4 of Germany, states that about 360 square 
inches for each plant gave the highest yield on a humous 



1 "irrigation and Drainage." 
3 K. S. R., XII., p. 1032. 



F. H. King. 



2 K. S. R., V., p. 232. 
4 K. S. R., VII., p. 681. 






PLANTING 93 

loam. This would result from rows 30 inches apart 
with plants 12 inches asunder. In the United King- 
dom my observation is that 2 7 -inch rows w T ith plants 
1 2 to 15 inches asunder for late varieties and 8 to 1 2 
inches for early (Fig. 23) and second early varieties is 
most popular. The Maryland Station 1 reports 25 per 
.xent. heavier yield from planting 30 x 14^ inches than 
from 3^x 12 inches. The average of Canadian 2 exper- 
iments for the six years, 1896-1901, shows that 12 to 
14 inches asunder in 30-inch rows was better than 10, 
16, or 18 inches, whether considered from the stand- 
point of total yield or of total yield minus the seed. At 
North Dakota Experiment Station, 3 with 40-inch rows 
and the variety Early Ohio, it was better to plant the 
sets 10 inches asunder than at greater distances. 

Depth of Planting. — The best depth varies to 
some extent with the soil, climate, and season. It is 
better to plant deeper on an open or light soil than on 
a compact or clay soil, in order to insure a more uniform 
temperature and moisture supply. These conditions 
aid in the production of good quality tubers. In a 
wet or a cold climate shallow planting may be good 
practice. In a wet season, on a compact soil, 1 inch 
or 2 inches deep seems to be best. The Michigan 
Experiment Station 4 reports that on a sandy loam, in 
1892, the yields of potatoes planted at various depths 
were, per acre : 2 inches deep, 275 bushels ; 3 inches, 
298 bushels ; 4 inches, 279 bushels ; 5 inches, 273 
bushels; 6 inches, 238 bushels. At North Dakota Ex- 



1 Md. Bui. 31, p. 77. - Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117. 

3 X. D. Report, 1901, p. 96. 4 Mich. Bui. 95, p. 9. 



94 THE POTATO 

periment Station 3 to 5 inches deep gave the heavi- 
est yields, but 5 to 6 inches deep is recommended, as 
tubers of better quality are produced. 1 While in a dry 
season, on a rich clay loam soil, Green 2 , of Minnesota, 
obtained better results from deep planting, the yields 
being, per acre, planted on the surface, 216 bushels; 
3 inches, 227 bushels ; 6 inches, 297 bushels ; 8 
inches, 328 bushels, it was felt that the results would 
have been different if the season had been wet. The 
New Jersey Experiment Station 3 obtained similar re- 
sults, but found a depth of 4 inches most profitable. 
From the data submitted and other sources, 3 inches 
to 4^ inches seems to be the most profitable depth. 4 
On soils which are heavy and bake, and under certain 
climatic conditions, the seed should be planted fairly 
deep, but not covered more than 2 inches or so, to aid 
germination. 5 The soil can then be gradually worked 
toward the potatoes until level culture is obtained. 
This system is sometimes advocated for the second 
crop in the South. 6 

Influence of Depth of Planting on the Depth 
at Which Tubers Form. — This question is of im- 
portance, because mechanical diggers must be used, 
and it is essential to know the depth to which they 
must work in order to dig all the crop. Zavitz, 7 of 
Ontario, as the result of three years' trial, found that 
on an average potatoes from tubers planted 



1 N. D. Report, 1901, p. 97. 2 Minn. Bui. 10, p. 74. 

3 N. J. Bui. 120, p. 10, and Botanist's Report, 1896, p. 318. 

4 Ga. Bui. 29, p. 304. Tex. Bui. 71, p. 7- 5 Pa. D. A. Report, 1902, p, 722. 
6 Ga. Bui. 29, p. 305. 7 Ont. Agr. Coll. Farms Report, 1894, p. 98. 



PLANTING 



95 



One inch deep were formed 2.3 inches below the surface ; 
Three inches deep were formed 2.9 inches below the surface; 
Five inches deep were formed 4.1 inches below the surface; 
Seven inches deep were formed 6 inches below the surface. 

It was observed that those planted 1 inch deep fur- 
nished many sunburned potatoes, while those planted 
deeper had almost none. Gilmore, of Cornell, ob- 
tained somewhat similar results during the year 1904. 
Goff, 1 of Wisconsin, planted the Burbank variety at 
different depths, and found that shallow planting in- 
sured greater germination and more tubers per hill, but 
that the}' were nearer the surface and had more ex- 
posed tubers. 

TABLE X 



Depth 

of 

Planting 


Hills Ger- 
minating 


Tubers 

Protruding 
from 
' Soil 


A 1 erage 
Number 
of Tubers 
per Hill 


A 1 erage A verage 
Weight of | Depth to 

Tubers Deepest 
per Hill Tuber 


2 

4 
6 


Per cent. 
100 
96 

88 


Per cent. 

8.4 
.8 


6.6 
5-4 

3-2 


Pounds Inches 
.58 2.5 
•62 3.5 

•35 5-o 



The Canadian Experiment Farms 2 report, as the re- 
sult of four years' trials, that with tubers planted 1 
inch to 8 inches deep, where the sets were planted less 
than 4 inches deep, nearly all the tubers were formed 
between that depth and the surface, and when plant- 
ed deeper than 4 inches most of them formed within 4 
inches of the surface. The deduction made from these 
results was that the potatoes developed in the surface 



1 Wis. Report, 1897, p. 306. 



- Can. Exp. Farms Report, 1901, p. 117. 



96 THE POTATO 

4 inches of soil because it was warmer than the 3 or 4 
inches lower down. 

Influence of Depth on Quality. — On a sandy loam, 
under New York conditions, potatoes grown about 4 
inches deep are generally of better quality than those 
grown nearer the surface. In other places, those 
grown at even greater depths have been observed to 
be of better quality; thus, at North Dakota Station, 1 
potatoes 5 to 6 inches deep were better than those 3 or 
4 inches deep in this respedt. 

Date of Planting. — As would be expected, the 
dates of planting potatoes vary widely, and the only 
way to deal with the question is to give the common 
dates for a certain locality. The reader is advised to 
inquire of the growers in the locality the date con- 
sidered best, and, as a general rule, it is wise to plant 
early for the district. Canadian experimenters 2 report, 
after four years' trial, that the end of May is the best 
time, and that June 24 is usually found to be the latest 
date for planting potatoes to produce satisfactory re- 
turns, although in 1900 a good crop w r as obtained from 
a planting on July 7. In Wisconsin the middle to the 
end of May, and in Maine late in May and early in June, 
are considered best. At Cornell University, in 1901, 
potatoes planted May 16 yielded 250 bushels per acre, 
while those planted June 12 and 17 yielded 162 and 197 
bushels respectively. In Oklahoma 3 potatoes planted 
March 14 came up and matured as early as those 
planted February 27. The early potato crop of Vir- 
ginia is usually planted during February and March, 



1 N. D. Report, 1901, p. 96. 2 Can. Exp Farm Report, 1901, p. 119. 

3 Okla. Bui. 52, p. 9. 



PLANTING 97 

and the second crop about August i. In latitude 33 
the dates are about two weeks later. 

Influence of Late and Early Planting. — The 
practice of growing a late crop of potatoes has spread 
northward, and in parts of New York it is custom- 
ary to plant potatoes late in the season after another 
crop, as peas, has been removed. The practice seems 
commendable, but discouraging reports from the potato 
salesmen in regard to the quality of these potatoes led 
the Cornell University Experiment Station to under- 
take investigations to determine, if possible, the facts. 
Mr. Gilmore, who is conducting this investigation, 
has furnished the first years' results, but these are in- 
sufficient to permit of deductions being made. 

TABLE XI 



Date of 
Planting 



r>„ t » „f Total Ash Protein 

L?mn£ Dr >' itiDyy inDy >' 

^'Jtin* Matter Matter Matter 



Per ct. Per ct. Per. ct. 

Green Mountain.. May 7 Sept. 11 22.9 4.5 9.77 

Green Mountain.. July 6 Oct. 22 18. 1 5.56 11.86 

Doe* s Pride May 7 Oct. 20 21.75 5 39 IO -35 

Doe's Pride July 6 Oct. 22 19-05 5.10 12. 11 



Starch 
in Dry 
Master 



Per ct. 

77.38 
72.43 
74.28 
71.14 



In both cases the late-planted potatoes contained 
less dry matter and less starch, or, in other words, were 
more water}- , and appeared to be immature. Similar 
results were obtained during the present year (1904). 

Methods of Planting. — The former method and 
one still quite common is to plant potatoes by hand. 
A furrow is thrown out by a common plow, or a 
shovel-plow, and, if applied, the fertilizers, and in 



PLANTING 



99 



some cases the manure, are placed in the furrow, the 
potatoes dropped in, and then covered by the plow. 
Generally speaking, the furrows should be thrown out 
so that the potatoes will be four inches below ground 
when the surface is level. The furrows are made the 





Wwm 



Courtesy Cornell University. 

FIG. 25— PLANTING BY HAND 

A — Tuber planted by hand in furrow opened with a shovel or double mold- 
board plow. B — The potatoes covered with shovel plow. C— I,and har- 
rowed level a few days after planting, to destroy weeds, leaving the 
potatoes four to five inches deep. Few farmers plant at this depth, even 
when they mean to do so. 



required distance apart. It has been deemed necessary 
to place the potato in position, and fix it so that it will 
not move when covered. In England this is done by 
requiring the planters to press it down by hand, and 
in this country the potatoes are often stepped on for 
the same reason. The stepping on them may injure 



IOO THK POTATO 

buds, and hence is detrimental. The rows should be 
made straight, and care should always be taken to 
have the potatoes planted in a straight line and at a 
uniform distance apart. The former facilitates in- 
tertillage to such an extent that it is worthy of atten- 
tion. On a dry, hot day it is inadvisable to open the 




FIG. 26 — SECTIONAL VIEW OF ASPINWALL PLANTER 

rows much ahead of the planters, and the seed should 
be covered as soon as possible to prevent loss of mois- 
ture. Frequently the rows plowed out before the noon 
meal hour and left open for this time show the injuri- 
ous effedt of the loss of moisture, especially if the seed 
is cut. * Wherever hand-planting is done and the 
tubers are not sprouted, the hand-planters, which are 



PLANTING 



IOI 



somewhat like hand corn-planters, may be used with 
profit. They cost $i .00 to $1 . 50, and it is claimed that 
an acftive man can plant at least one acre per day. 

Every large grower of potatoes requires a horse- 
planter. From six to eight acres will warrant the 
use of such a machine, and it may be made to pay for 
itself in a short time by hiring it out — preferably w r ith 




FIG. 27 — ASPINWALL POTATO PLANTER (SIDE VIEW) 



a man to work it. Some planters require one man, 
others two men, to work them; the latter generally 
do the best work, although good work is done by the 
former. Two systems of mechanism are emplo3^ed — the 
picker and the platform. In some planters the tubers 
are fed from the hopper onto pickers, or spikes, which 
projedl from a revolving vertical disk. The disk 
carries them round to the top of a delivery pipe, where 
they are knocked off, or fall off, going down the pipe 



I02 



THE POTATO 



to the ground. This system, or a modification of it, is 
used in the Aspinwall (Figs. 26-27), the Deere, and the 
the Eureka planters. Trials with a planter of this type 
showed that, with small whole seed and well-prepared 
ground, this machine will work up to its guarantee of 
95 percent. ; that is, it will not skip more than 5 places 
in 100. With longer cut seed and rougher land, espe- 




FIG. 28 — THE ROBBINS IMPROVED PLANTER 



cially if slightly hilly, it will miss up to 20 in 100. If 
these misses were distributed it would not be so serious, 
but often 5 or 6 occur at a stretch. If the seed is cut 
long and thin, the pickers may take hold of two pieces 
instead of one. This happens frequently — often up to 
20 per cent. These machines open the furrow, distribute 
the fertilizer, plant the potato, and cover. The latter 
operation is usually performed by revolving concave 
disks. The distance apart of the tubers is regulated by 
adding or removing the pickers. The higher-priced 



PLANTING I03 

machines are stronger made than the lower-priced, 
and, in some cases the fertilizer attachment is extra. 

The Robbins improved potato-planter (Fig. 28) is of 
the platform type. The potatoes are elevated from the 
hopper by means of a wheel, and are discharged onto a 
platform which is cleared by several revolving arms 
(Fig. 29); the mechanism is so timed that a potato 




FIG. 29 — THE PLATFORM OF THE ROBBINS IMPROVED PLANTER 

should fall on the platform between each two arms. 
Sometimes the elevator comes up empty or brings two 
pieces up ; in either case it is necessary for the man sit- 
ting behind to put one piece on the vacant part of the 
table between the arms or take the extra piece off. In 
this way the tubers are planted more carefully and regu- 
larly than most hand work. The amount and distance 
apart of seed, and the amount of fertilizer sown, are 



104 THE POTATO 

regulated by interchangeable sprockets. The various 
parts of the machine are driven by means of a chain 
drive. This machine opens the row, distributes the 
fertilizer in rather a wide stream, plants the potato, 
and covers it in a satisfactory manner. Any ordinary 
required depth can be obtained. It can be used for 
planting beans, corn, and other crops. With potato- 
planters three to six acres can be planted per day. 

Losses of crop due to insufficient seeding cannot be 
made up during the year. The land requires the same 
amount of w r ork, and the soil needs moving at digging- 
time; but there is not the yield, and it is an important 
consideration whether 5 per cent, to 20 per cent, loss 
of plants per acre is not too high a price for the sake of 
one man's pay per day. Even with the cheapest 
" picker ' ' planter, the lower initial cost is not sufficient 
to recompense the grower for the loss sustained by 
using it on ten acres when compared with the perfect 
machine. 



CHAPTER IX 
MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP 

Cultivation. — Almost invariably judicious cultiva- 
tion of potato land is profitable. It is secondary to 
good preparation of the land. The object is not 
primarily to destroy weeds, although this may be a 
consideration. To-day intelligent farmers till to in- 
crease yield. Tillage is manuring. No better illustra- 
tions of this fact can be found than the tillage experi- 
ments of Roberts and others at Cornell University. 1 In 
these trials potatoes were grown several years in suc- 
cession, without manures or fertilizers, upon the same 
land, and yields varying from 300 to 350 bushels per 
acre, or three to four times the average yield of the 
State, were secured for several years. This illustrates 
the value of tillage, but in its entirety is not necessarily 
a good practice. Tillage destroys humus, and as this 
is one of the most essential constituents of a good 
potato soil, a rotation of crops is advised to aid in 
maintaining the supply. Tillage may be overdone, 
especially deep tillage in dry weather. During such a 
time only sufficient shallow tillage should be given to 
maintain a mulch. 

At Cornell from seven to nine cultivations seemed to 
be most profitable, or about every seven to ten da} T s until 
the potato- vines meet in the rows. Tillage must be 
given when necessary. The right number of cultiva- 



(X. Y.) Cornell Bui. 140, pp. 389-390; 191, p. 192. 

105 



106 THE POTATO 

tions will vary with each year and the class of soil. 
The Ohio Experiment Station 1 found that thorough 
culture encouraged vigorous growth and aided the 
plants to resist fungous troubles. 
The obje&s of tillage, then, are : 
i. To increase the crop-producing power, presum- 
ably by : 

(a) Liberating plant-food. 
(£) Maintaining good texture. 
(V) Conserving moisture by the aid of a soil mulch. 
(d) Pulverizing the ground, so that every shower 
of rain can enter the soil and not flow off, 
transporting the fine soil particles. 
2. To keep weeds in check. 

System of Culture. — Hills. — Generally hills — that 
is, where potatoes are planted in checks — are unprofit- 
able because there are not enough plants per acre and 
the yield is too low; hence the system is little used un- 
less a piece of land is very weedy. 

Drills. — By " drills" it is understood that the soil is 
thrown toward the potatoes, leaving a depression or 
furrow between the rows. This system is used for 
irrigation, when the water flows between the rows. It 
is also practiced in humid climates, where the tempera- 
ture does not go high — as, Northern England, Scot- 
land, etc. — and on wet soils and in wet seasons. Often 
the "furrowing" injures roots and reduces the yield, 
but many growers claim that the ease with which the 
potatoes can be dug from drills compensates for any 
loss in yield. The objection to level culture is that 



Ohio Bui. 76, p. 47. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP 107 

difficulty is experienced in securing machinery which 
will dig all the tubers. 

Level Culture. — In this system the potatoes must be 
planted a little deeper than in the case of the other 
two, to reduce the percentage of sun-burned tubers. 
This system is advocated throughout most of Eastern 
North America, as, among other things, the quality of 




FIG. 30 — HALLECK EXPANSIBLE WEFDER 

the potatoes is better, owing to the ground being 
cooler. Its use has been found advisable at such 
various points as Cornell, 1 Louisiana, 2 North Caro- 
lina, 3 Wisconsin, 4 and Arkansas 5 Experiment Stations, 
while the Maryland 6 Station, in a trial lasting six years, 
found little difference between level and drill culture, 
but the slight variation was in favor of level culture. 

Method of Cultivation and Tools Used. — About 
a week after planting the spike-tooth harrow should 
be run over the land, preferably in both directions, if 
a mulch is not made by one harrowing. This destroys 



1 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 140, p. 390; 156, p. 175. 2 L,a. Bui. 22, p. 705. 

3 N. Car. Bui. 85, p. 4; 146, p. 262. 4 Wis. Report, 1899, p. 210. 

6 Ark. Bui. 50, p. 29. 6 Md. Bui. 62, p. 204. 



io8 



THK POTATO 



young weeds and brings more seed up to germinate, 
which may be killed by another harrowing a week 
later. When the potatoes appear, the weeder (Fig. 30) 
will be found the most serviceable implement for holding 
the weeds in check and maintaining the mulch. It may 




FIG. 31 — FIVE-TOOTH CULTIVATOR WITH H1LLER ATTACHMENTS 
Still used by many farmers. 



be driven across the rows after each cultivation until 
the potatoes are 9 or 10 inches high. As a good 
horse and man can do twenty acres a day, it is quite 
expeditious and generally satisfactory. 

Generally speaking, it is advised to cultivate widely 
and deeply from 4 to 6 inches the first, and, in 
some cases, the second time after the potatoes appear, 
then reduce the width and the depth to one inch or so. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE GROWING CROP 



IO9 



The first and second cultivations may be given with a 
five- tooth cultivator (Fig. 31), or a sulky cultivator 
(Fig. 32) may be used. The spring-tooth cultivator 
(Fig. 33) is found to be a very useful tool for inter- 




ne 32 — A USEFUL TWO-HORSE CULTIVATOR 
A requisite wherever large areas of potatoes are grown. 

tillage work for the third and subsequent cultivations, 
and the spike-tooth expansible cultivator with the 
shields is an excellent tool for shallow tillage, as it 
destroys the small weeds and helps to maintain a soil 
mulch. 



no 



THE POTATO 



Mulching. — In some districts good yields have 
been obtained by mulching the land with straw, 
shavings, pine straw, or some similar substance, instead 
of cultivating it. Waugh found that it increased the 




FIG. 33 — ONE-HORSE SPRING-TOOTH CULTIVATOR 
An excellent tool for the later cultivations. 

yield in Oklahoma 1 and similar results were obtained 
in New Jersey, 2 while in Georgia, 3 Michigan, 4 Wis- 
consin, 5 and in my own trials in New York, it was 
found to be unprofitable, even when the yields obtained 
were about the same under both conditions. 



1 Okla. Bui. 15, p. 32. 

3 Ga. Bui. 29, p. 348. 

5 Wis. Report, 1899, p. 209. 



2 N. J. Report, 1901, p. 418. 
4 Mich, Bui. 95, pp. 13-16, 



CHAPTER X 

OBSTRUCTIONS TO GROWTH AND 
DEVELOPMENT 

The obstructions to growth may be treated under 
the following heads: 

i. Season and Climate. 

2. Weeds. 

3. Diseases dice to parasitic fungi a?id bacteria. 

4. Insects. 

5. Arsenical poiso7iing. 

1. Influence of Season and Climate. — The in- 
jurious influence of dry weather at planting- time has 
already been observed ("Viability," page 66). At 
the (Hatch) 1 Massachusetts Experiment Station it was 
observed that the wet condition of the soil at the time 
of planting appeared to induce the rotting of the }^oung 
plants just below ground. The occurrence of several 
extremely hot sunny da}'s in July, following a long 
rainy period, caused the plants to wilt from the wet 
condition of the soil and low vitality. No disease was 
apparent. Probably these plants showed the injurious 
results consequent on defective respiration due to high 
temperatures. Frost may cut down early planted 
potatoes. 

Tip Burn.' 1 — This is most common in Northeastern 



1 Mass. (Hatch) Report, 189S, p. 52. 

2 Ver. Report, 1899, p 151; Bui. 72, p. 10. (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 113, p. 309. 
Conn. Report 18 (1894), p. 133. 



112 THE POTATO 

America. The leaves become brown on the margin 
and die. It is caused by drought, and is more prevalent 
on light soils. Irrigation and selection of vigorous 
varieties, more care in cultivation, and fertilizing are 
suggested. At Wisconsin Experiment Station, 1 Green 
Mountain, Rural New Yorker No. 2, Everett's Heavy 
Weight, and Colossal proved most resistant in 1896. 

Sun Scald. 2 — Its effedl is similar to that of tip burn. 
It is more prevalent in the Southeastern United States, 
and is often noticed when long-continued damp weather 
is followed by several hot, bright days. 

2. Weeds. — These injure the plant by using w 7 ater 
and other plant-food, crowding the plant, preventing 
the free circulation of air, and in these ways reducing 
the vitality and rendering the potato more subjedl to 
disease. 

3. Diseases Due to Parasitic Fungi and Bacte- 
ria. — IyATE Bright or Rot 3 (Phytophthora infestans). 
— There is reason to believe that this disease has existed 
for ages in the western parts of South America, and 
was disseminated over Europe a long time before 
its presence was recognized. It seriously injured the 
crops of potatoes^ in the United States and Canada 
in 1843, and reappeared the following year. In July, 
1845, it was first detedted in Europe, in Belgium, and 
within two months thereafter it was recorded in Eng- 
land, Ireland, Scotland, France, Germany, Denmark, 
and Russia. Since that time it has never been entirely 



1 Wis. Report, 1896, p. 240. 2 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 91, p. 10. 

3 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 113, pp. 297-302. Vt. Bui. 49, pp. 90, 91; Bui 72, p. 
13. U. S. D A. Farmers' Bui. 91, p. 8. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 113 

absent from the potato crops, although in some years 
it is not so destructive as in others. 

The disease appears during damp, muggy weather in 
August and September. It is often noticed as small 
brownish spots on the lower leaves, which rapidly en- 
large. In moist weather the edges of these spots, 
on the under surface of the leaf, appear to be covered 
with a white downy mildew. In dry weather this 
may be difficult to dete6l. Later the leaves appear 
-as though burnt, and finally the whole plant, and 
in some cases the w T hole field, will become a putrid, 
offensive mass of decaying stems and leaves. The 
tubers may be attacked also, and rot in the field or 
in storage. Sometimes the disease runs a very rapid 
course, and a field will wilt down in twenty-four 
to forty-eight hours. 

Cause. — The cause is a parasitic fungus which com- 
pletes its life history in four or five days or less. The 
whitish mold is made up of stalks bearing branches 
(Fig. 34). These bear spore cases (Figs. 34 and 35), 
which break up to form spores (Fig. 35). . These 
spores send out small tubes (Figs. 35, 36, 37), which 
enter the potato leaf through a stomata, or breathing 
pore (Fig. 37), or penetrate the cell wall (Figs. 36, 37). 
The tubes spread in the w r alls of the leaf cells (Fig. 
34) like mushroom spawn in a mushroom bed, utiliz- 
ing the plant-food which should go to form tubers. 
At intervals they send out spore-bearing branches 
through the stomata (Fig. 34), which perpetuate the 
trouble. Unless the tubers are well covered with soil, 
the spores may fall on the ground, and, reaching the 
tubers, transmit the disease to them. 



H4 



THE POTATO 




FIG. 34 — SECTION OF A POTATO LEAF 
(After Marshall Ward) 

Showing the parts and the threads, or mycelium, of the blight or rot (Phy- 
tophthora infestans) a — Epidermis, or outer cells, b — Palisade cells, which 
aid in giving rigidity and firmness to the leaf, and in the manufacture of 
starch and other ingredients, c— Spongy tissue, showing cells and large 
air spaces between, d — The stomata, or breathing pores of the leaf, with 
aerial branches of the parasite growing outward through them, e— The 
spore sacs, or conidia, in which the spores, or seeds, are formed, f— A pe- 
culiar hair on the under surface of the leaf. The dots in the cells are the 
chlorophyll granules, which give the green color to the leaf, and aid in the 
production of starch. The dark parts of the tissue show where cells are 
dying from the effects of the disease. I<oss of cells means a reduction in 
the amount of food prepared, and, consequently, reduced yield. In New 
York alone the farmers lose $8,000,000 to $10,000,000 annually from diseases, 
and because they do not spray. This is the most important disease preva- 
lent at present. 



Aids to Attack. — i. Flea-beetles pundlure the leaves 
and furnish easy access for the spores to the inner 
parts of the leaf. 

2. Humid, still days, with a temperature of about 73 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 



115 



F. Above 78 F. and below 50 F. there is practically 
no germination of the spores. 

Preventioyi. — 1. Spraying with copper compounds — 
as, Bordeaux mixture, copper sulphate and soda mix- 








FIG. 35 — THE MATURA'TON OF A SPORE SAC (CONIDIA) AND 

GERMINATION OF A SPORE (ZOOSPORE) OF ROT 

{Phytopht hora infestans) 

(After Marshall Ward) 

a— Ripe spore sac in water, b— The protoplasmic contents break up into 

blocks and escape as kidney-shaped zoospores (c and d). e — Each have 

two thread-like arms, called cilia, which are lost as the spore comes to rest 

(/and g) ; k, i,j, and k show stages of germination. Moist, warm, or still, 

muggy days are best for the growth and development of these spores. On 

such occasions the disease spreads rapidly. 



ture. If the surfaces of the leaves and stems be covered 
with a thin film of some copper compound, w r e either 
prevent the entrance or injure the vitality of the ger- 
minating spore tubes, so that the potatoes enjoy a 
certain degree of immunity from the disease. 

This is the philosophy of the use of Bordeaux mix- 



n6 



THE POTATO 



ture. The degree of immunity 
varies with our ability to keep 
the whole of the plant covered 
with an armor of Bordeaux 
mixture. Plants half sprayed 
are not secure, as the disease 
can spread rapidly inside the 
plant. The plant must be com- 
pletely coated all the time to be 
immune. This may be impos- 
sible when a plant is growing, 
but this is not the fault of the 
Bordeaux mixture. The more 
thoroughly and more frequently 
the spraying is done the better 
the chances of bringing the 
crop through. It will be seen 
that Bordeaux is but a prevent- 
ive; it is not a cure. Hence, 
the poor results from spraying 
after the disease has obtained a 
foothold. 

2. Obtaining disease-resisting 
varieties, or changing the seed 
if it has lost its resisting power. 

3. Planting on fresh ground, 
and planting early. 

4. Giving good cultivation, 
and having a good rotation. 

5. Destroying all refuse of 
potatoes. 

6. Having good drainage — both water and air drain 




FIG. 36 — LONGITUDINAL 
SECTION OF A POTATO 
STALK, SHOWING A GER- 
MINATING SPORE OF ROT 
(Phytophthora infestans) 
(After Marshall Ward) 

The number of stomata per 
square inch on a potato stem 
is much smaller than in the 
case of a leaf, but here the 
germ tube has pierced the 
cell wall, and is growing in 
the cell. In spraying, the 
stems should be coated with 
Bordeaux. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 117 

age. Near woodland, where the air drainage is poor, 
the disease spreads rapidly' on damp or misty days. 
Land choked with weeds keeps the lower leaves and 
stalks damp, and more subject to attack. 




F'G. 36 — THE GERMINATING TUBE OF A SPORE OF ROT 
( Phytop hth ra infesta ns) 
(After Marshall Ward) 
This rnay enter a plant through a stomata, or breathing pore, as at a, or 
it may penetrate the cell wall, as at b. The maintenance of a coat of Bor- 
deaux mixture all over the plant would check the growth of these spores. 

7. Xot digging until ten days after the vines die. 

8. Getting potatoes out of the field as soon as dug, 
and never covering piles of potatoes with spore-laden 
haulm. 



I I 8 THE POTATO 

Early Blight, 1 or Leaf Spot Disease {Macro- 
sporium so/am). — It is a fungus disease which appears 
usually in June to July, or ahead of the late blight. It 
does not generally attack vigorous plants. It spreads 
in warmer, drier weather than the late blight. It forms 
circular brown spots with target-like markings on 
the leaves. It enters the leaf through tissues weak- 
ened by other agents, as flea-beetles, etc. It does not 
attack the tubers directly, and never causes them to rot. 

Preventives. — i. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 

2. Selection of vigorous varieties. 

3. Better tillage and fertilization. 

Potato Rosette {Rhizocto?iia so/am. 2 ) — This dis- 
ease has been known since 1842, but it is only recently 
that it has caused considerable trouble. It is now well 
established all over the country, and in some places 90 
per cent, of the tubers appear to be affected by it. It 
tends to cause the formation of an abnormal number of 
small tubers of no value. The stems show discolored 
decaying areas above ground and brown dead areas be- 
low, and the leaves tend to grow in rosette-like clusters. 
The resting spores live for several years in the soil, and 
the methods of infection are by seed potatoes, beet and 
mangold roots, dead potato stems, and some weeds; 
hence, fields should be kept clean. The disease at- 
tacks beets, mangolds, and clover. Soaking the seed 
in formalin will destroy the spores on the potatoes, but 
is of no value if the soil is infedled. Planting sound 



1 Vt. Bui. 49, pp. 91-96; Bui. 72, pp 16-25. U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 15, pp. 
4, 5; Bui. 91, p. 5. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 123, p. 236. N. H. Bui. 45, pp. 50, 56. 
Tex. Bui. 42, p. 923. 

2 (N. Y.) Cornell and Geneva Bui. 186. Col. Bui. 69, 70. Ohio Bui. 139, 145. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 119 

tubers and a good rotation of crops will aid in com- 
batting the trouble. 

Scab (Oopsora scabies Than.).- — Thaxter has shown 
that this fungus is the chief cause of scab (Fig. 38), 
although Roze claims that the primary cause is bacte- 
rial, and that the fungus Oospora scabies and other 
organisms follow, causing the familiar rough and 
cankerous appearance of scab. Other causes are also 
given. 1 An enormous amount of work has been ex- 
pended on this disease, and still no absolute preventive 
is known if the land is inoculated with the trouble. 

Treatme?it. — Of a large number of substances used 
for treating the seed potatoes, soaking them in a solu- 
tion of formalin, 1 pound to 30 gallons of water, for 2 
hours is the most effective. Soak the potatoes before 
cutting them, and if they are not planted at once 
spread them thinly to dry. If left in bags they will 
heat and the buds be ruined. After soaking two or three 
lots of potatoes the solution should be changed, as it 
loses its efficacy. A big cheese-vat or sheep-dipping 
vat, in which several bags may be placed at a time, is 
useful. A small block and tackle will enable one man 
to lift large bags in and out of the vat, and suspend 
them to permit of some drainage. 

The following points are of importance. 

An acid condition of the soil is injurious to the 
growth of scab. Lime, wood ashes, and barn manure 
aid the growth of scab, while sulphate of ammonia, 
muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, kainit, acid phos- 
phate, and dissolved bone render the soil less favorable 



1 W. Va. vSpecial Bui. 44, pp. 2S5-6. 




c 






O a; 

1-1 0) 
" n3 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 121 

to the disease. Scabby seed will inoculate clean land. 
Scabby potatoes cannot be sold. If used as fertilizer, 
even after steaming for twenty minutes 1 or being ex- 
posed to the weather all winter, they will inoculate the 
land they are spread on. 

Exposing tubers to sunlight for four weeks before 
planting reduces the percentage of scab and hastens 
growth. 

Scab can live in the soil at least six years without a 
known host. Beets, mangolds, turnips, and rutabagas 
are subject to the same disease; hence in the rotation 
these crops should be avoided, if possible. 

Varieties vary in their susceptibility to scab, 2 the 
thicker skinned varieties being reported as most re- 
sistant. 

It seems to be useless to treat scabby seed if they are 
to be planted on scab-infested land. 3 

Plowing under green rye does not diminish scab, as 
has been stated. 4 

Applying sulphur in the rows at the rate of 300 
pounds per acre and more has been tried extensively, 
but is not recommended as a practice, as it is of little 
use on infested land. 

Diseases in Storage. — Wet Rot has several 
causes. 

1. Blight or Rot {Phytophthora infestans). The 
tissues of the tuber become soft either partially or 
wholly, the skin shrinks, and the layer under it be- 
comes pasty. Potatoes from light soils appear to be 



1 X. J. Report, 1899, pp. 344~345- 2 N. J. Report, 1899, p. 329; 1900, p. 417. 

3 (X. Y.) Geneva Bui. 138, p. 631. 

4 (N. Y ) Geneva Bui. 138, p. 629. X. J. Report, 1900, p. 417. 



122 THE POTATO 

less subject to it than those from heavy soils, and the 
disease spreads most rapidly in a damp, warm, and 
close cellar. 

2. Due to bacteria. 1 The tubers may be wholly or 
partially soft, and exhale a disagreeable odor. Butyric 
acid may be liberated and the destruction of the tubers 
is slow. Contact with other potatoes should be avoided. 

If to be used for seed, in some cases depending on 
the cause, soaking the tubers in formalin before plant- 
ing is beneficial. 

Dry Rot may be the evidence of the presence of one 
or more of several troubles. 2 

i. Stem rot, 3 bundle blackening, dry end rot, is be- 
lieved to be due to a fungus (Fusariutn oxysporum)\ 
the leaves curl, and the foliage wilts and dies. The 
tubers show brown or blackened bundles at the stem 
end under an apparently sound skin. The disease 
spreads rapidly in storage, especially if the rooms are 
warm. Some investigators advise that diseased tubers 
should not be fed to stock, thrown on the manure-pile, 
or planted, and that all such potatoes should be de- 
stroyed at harvest-time or as soon as discovered. No 
remedy is known. 

2. Due to badleria. The tubers may be free from 
odor, moderately firm, but more or less soft in spots, 
showing in places a loose skin, which yields to the fin- 
ger, and under which are white, gray, or brownish 
blotches. Soaking unaffected tubers in formalin before 
planting is suggested. 



1 111. Bui. 40, p. 140. 2 111. Bui. 40, p. 139. Tex. Bui. 42, p. 926. 

3 U. S. D. A. Bureau of Plant Industry Bui. 55. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 101, 
pp. 83, 84; Bui. 138, pp. 632, 634. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 



123 



4. Insects. — The Flea-beetle (Crepidodera (Epi- 
trix) cucumeris) (Fig. 39). — These small insects often 

cause more loss than the potato 
beetles. They perforate the 
leaves (Fig. 40) during a critical 





FIG. 39 — THE CUCUMBER 
FLEA-BEETLE [Crepidodera 
(Epitrix) cucumeris) 
(After Chittenden) 
Highly magnified. The insect 
is barely one-eighth inch long. 
The damage done by this in- 
sect is considerably under- 
estimated. 

period of the plant's 
life. The holes pro- 
duced are used by the FIG 40 _ LEAFI T OF POTATO , SHOW . 
spores of both early i NG over a hundred holes made 
and late blight for by flea-beetles 

entrance into the leaf. The ease with which this damage might be 

. 1 overlooked is evident. These holes make 

Arsenical pOlSOlling IS su i ta ble avenues for the entrance of spores 

USUally first noticed of disease, and pave the way for the rapid 

. p destruction of the plant. 

on the margins 01 

these holes. At no time in their life history can these 

insects be readily destroyed. They dislike Bordeaux 



124 THE POTATO 

mixture ; hence, the only known means of reducing 
their ravages is to spray the plants with this material. 

NUMBER OF FLEA-BEETLE PUNCTURES IN 50 LEAFLETS FROM 
12 ADJACENT ROWS ] 

Punctures 

Row I. — Sprayed with very weak Bordeaux mixture . 1,794 
Row 2. — Sprayed with very weak Bordeaux mixture and 

soap 1,071 

Row 3. — Not Sprayed 2,511 

Row 4. — Sprayed with strong Bordeaux mixture . . 1,194 
Row 5. — Sprayed with strong Bordeaux mixture and 

soap 1,090 

Row 6. — Sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixture . . . 1,295 

Row 7. — Sprayed with weak Bordeaux mixture and soap 901 

Row 8. — Not sprayed 2,287 

The grubs of the flea-beetle infest the tubers and 
roots of potatoes, doing some damage and causing the 
trouble known as "pimply potatoes." 2 

In the Pacific Coast the flea-beetles {Epiirix subcri- 
nita, Lee, and E. hirtipennis, Mels.) sometimes reduce 
the yield 50 per cent, by their ravages. As they are 
leaf-eaters, the foliage should be sprayed or dusted with 
an arsenical poison. One pound of Paris green to 150 
gallons of water per acre is suggested, 3 but it is better 
to apply the Paris green in Bordeaux mixture. 

The Potato Beetle, Colorado Potato Beetle, 
or Potato Bug (Doryphora decemliiieata) . — Until 1850 
this insedl was confined to Mexico and the Rockies. 
In 1859 its eastward movement was noted, and it is 
now well distributed. A related species (D. juncta) 



1 Vt. Bui. 72, pp. 6-9. 2 (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 113, pp. 312-317. 

3 Cal. Bui. 135, p. 29. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 1 25 

retreated before its advance, and is now more common 
in the South. In New Mexico 1 a parasite lives on the 
eggs and larvae. The eggs are laid on the potato 
leaves, on which the young ' l bugs ' ' live, chewing 
holes in or eating the whole of the leaf. The insects 
are most active about blossoming- time, and do con- 
siderable damage if left alone. 

Modes of Combatting . — The leaf should be thoroughly 
coated with a poison, generally an arsenical compound 
being used. The poison should be applied as soon as 
the ''bugs " hatch, because the younger the " bugs " 
the more easily they are destroyed. Various arsenical 
compounds are used — as, Paris green, arsenate of lead, 
and others. "Bugs" object to Bordeaux mixture, 
hence in applying the poison it is found to be good 
practice to apply Bordeaux mixture at the same time. 
The whole of the plant should be covered, because if 
badly sprayed the bugs live on the unsprayed foliage. 
The standard application is }( to j4 pound of Paris 
green to 50 gallons of mixture. Generally 1 pound of 
Paris green is sufficient per acre, and if it is desired to 
apply more than 100 gallons, the proportion of Paris 
green should be varied accordingly. If desired, Paris 
green may be applied in the dry form by means of a 
powder gun, the Paris green being mixed with flour, 
land plaster, etc., as desired. About 50 cents per acre 
should cover the cost of one application. 

The Potato Worm, 2 also known in the South as 
the tobacco-leaf miner (Ge/ec/iia operculella, Zell.), is 
estimated to destroy 25 per cent, of the potato crop 



1 American Naturalist, 1S99, pp. 927-29. New Mexico Bui. 33, pp. 47-51. 

2 Cal. Bui. 135, pp. 5-29. 



126 THE POTATO 

on the Pacific Coast. Great losses often occur in stor- 
age as well as in the field. The moths fly at night, 
and lay eggs on the stalks and tubers. Destruction of 
the moths by trap lanterns, the destruction of infested 
stems, careful hilling of potatoes, getting them under 
cover as soon as dug, cleaning up the refuse of 
the field, and a rotation of crops is recommended. 
In storage, fumigation with i}& pounds of carbon 
bisulphide per thousand cubic feet of air-space will 
destroy all the larvse if repeated five times at intervals 
of two weeks. This gas is inflammable, and no lights 
must be taken near. It is a heavy gas, and sinks from 
the top of the building. 

Potato Stalk Weevii, l ( Trichobaris tri?iotata). — 
This beetle attacks the stalks, causing them to wilt. 
It is found from Canada to Texas and Florida. The 
vines should be destroyed as soon as attacked, and 
weeds belonging to the potato family kept down. 

Another insert has caused similar trouble in Maine. 2 

Grasshoppers (Melanophts sp.) do much damage 
during some seasons, especially after the hay crop is 
cut, by severing parts of the leaves. Bordeaux mix- 
ture containing an arsenical poison is the best deter- 
rent, being better than the arsenical compound alone. 

The June Bug (Lacknosterna sp.). — The big white 
larvae of these beetles often eat the tubers. They are 
most prevalent on land which has been in grass, 
although if land is in clover but one or two years less 
trouble may be expedled. 



1 Consult U. S. D. A. Div. of Entomology, Bui. 33, 6. Ind. Report, 1895. 
Kan. Bui. 82. Pa. D. A. Report, 1896. N. J. Bui. 109, pp. 25-32. 

2 Me. Report, 1897, p 173. 



OBSTRUCTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 127 

Wireworms injure potatoes by boring through them. 
They are more prevalent on land which has been in 
grass a few years. Frequent rotation and fall plowing 
are advised for both of these pests. 

Other insecls injurious to potatoes include: Striped 
Blister Beetle, or ' ' Old-fashioned Potato Bug ' ' (Epi- 
cauta vittata). This insecl should be combatted in the 
same way as the Colorado potato beetle — by applica- 
tions of arsenical poisons to the foliage. The Tomato 
Worm and Cutworms are injurious. The latter are 
very destructive at times, and the best remedy seems 
to be to place bait, made of moist bran and sugar, 
poisoned with Paris green in the fields. 1 

Arsenical Poisoning. — Paris green, London pur- 
ple, and other arsenical compounds usually carry their 
arsenic in an insoluble form, but some may be soluble. 
This soluble arsenious oxide may burn the leaves, espe- 
cially the tips where the mixture flows, and the edges 
of mutilated leaves, causing death of the spot and a 
' ' target-like ' ' appearance of the leaf. 

Remedy. — Do not use more than 1 pound of Paris 
green per acre, dissolved in 100 to 200 gallons of Bor- 
deaux mixture. The trouble is most prevalent where 
people half spray and use Paris green alone, or 1 
pound of Paris green in one barrel (50 gallons) of 
w r ater and lime or Bordeaux mixture. 



1 N. J. Bui. 109; Report, 1895, p. 366. 



CHAPTER XI 
SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 

Fungicides are materials used to combat fungi, or 
small plants which are usually parasitic. 

Bordeaux mixture is the leading fungicide for pota- 
toes. The ingredients for making this mixture are 
freshly slaked lime and copper sulphate. The fungi- 
cidal value lies in the copper compound. The lime is 
added to prevent the copper sulphate burning the foli- 
age, and to make the mixture more adhesive and more 
readily seen when applied. The amount of lime and 
copper sulphate used vary considerably. Not less than 
2 pounds of lime can be used to 3 pounds of copper 
sulphate. Excess of lime is disadvantageous in some 
ways, as it renders the mixture less efficient by making 
it thicker, and in this way more liable to settle 1 and 
more difficult to apply, causing nozzles to clog, but in 
a wet season an excess of lime is desirable. A thin 
mixture can, however, be more uniformly applied. 

Use freshly burnt, clean, firm lime; slake it by pour- 
ing water, preferably hot, over it in small amounts at 
a time, until the lime has fallen to a fine powder; 
then add enough water to make a thin paste. A 
large quantity of lime may be slaked at one time and 
kept covered with water. This is a " stock solution." 

To dissolve copper sulphate, it should be placed in a 



1 (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 243, p. 320. 
128 



SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 1 29 

coarse sack and suspended in the top of the water in a 
wood, brass, or porcelain vessel — usually a wooden 
barrel, as it corrodes iron. The copper sulphate sinks 
in the water as it dissolves, and a gallon of water wall 
dissolve 3 pounds of copper sulphate. This is a satu- 
rated solution. If 6 pounds of copper sulphate are re- 
quired to a barrel of water, 2 gallons of this stock 
solution should be used. 

Mixing. — It is economical to have an elevated stage, 
under or alongside of which the spray-cart may be 
draw T n. Place four 50-gallon barrels on this stage, 
two of which are for the stock solutions of lime and 
copper sulphate, and two for making the mixture. 
To make 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture, pour 2 gal- 
lons of copper sulphate saturated solution into one 
barrel and fill it up to the 25-gallon mark w r ith water. 
Stir up the stock solution of lime and dip out as much 
as is required; if 5 pounds, then the solution equivalent 
to this amount; strain it, to exclude particles which 
might clog nozzles, into the lime-mixing barrel, and 
fill up to the 25-gallon mark and stir. The mixing- 
barrels should be provided with 2-inch or 3-inch rubber 
hose, one end of which is attached in an opening near 
the bottom of the barrel, the other free. When ready, 
put the hose from each barrel into the spray-tank, and 
let them empty and mix together. The rubber hose 
should be long enough so that the free end can be 
turned over into its barrel w r hen not in use. If desired, 
the stock-solution barrels may be placed above and 
over the mixing-barrels, so that dipping out solution 
is avoided; it may be run out through a faucet. 
Convenience to a water-supply expedites the work, 



130 the potato 

Testing Bordeaux Mixture. — In practice little 
attention is paid to the quantity of lime, except that 
sufficient is added to combine with all of the copper 
sulphate. To determine when this has taken place 
the potassium ferrocyanide test is made. Purchase 
ten cents' worth of potassium ferrocyanide, or yellow 
prussiate of potash, and dissolve it in water. Label 
it ' ' Poison. ' ' Stir the Bordeaux mixture in the spray- 
tank and take out a sample in a small vessel, to which 
add a drop of potassium ferrocyanide. If no change 
in color is noted where it dropped there is sufficient 
lime, but it is better to add lime solution equivalent to 
a pound of lime more. If the drop changed the color 
of the solution reddish brown it shows that there is 
not enough lime. 

Strength of Solution. — For potatoes, 1 pound 
of copper sulphate to 7 or 8 gallons of water is com- 
monly used; that is : 

Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 6 pounds. 
Quicklime (not slaked), 4 to 6 pounds. 
Water, 48 to 50 gallons. 

Bordeaux Dust, 1 or Dry Bordeaux Mixture, 
can be made in two ways : 

1 . Slaking the lime by pouring a strong solution of 
copper sulphate over it. 

2. Mixing the strong copper sulphate solution with 
freshly slaked lime which has been made into a paste, 
then placing the mixture in a bag and drying and pul- 
verizing it. The two ingredients must be well mixed 
and passed through a fine sieve. Dry Bordeaux is 
offered for sale under various names. Adler's Bor- 



For details, see Missouri Bui. 60. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 243, p. 325. 



SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 131 

deaux is reported to be as efficient as newly mixed, 1 
but generally these preparations are much inferior to 
the newly prepared, and, when applied dry, are less 
effective than in the wet form. 

Washing Soda and Copper Sulphate Mixture. 
— This mixture is being used with success in parts of 
Europe. It does not clog nozzles, spreads evenly over 
the leaf, and is easily and cheaply prepared. The 
washing soda is dissolved in water, poured into the 
barrel of w T ater and stirred, and the copper sulphate 
added and stirred. Various strengths are in use, but 
the most satisfactory one for American conditions has 
yet to be determined. We are trying 4 pounds of cop- 
per sulphate, 6 pounds of washing soda, and 50 gallons 
of water, adding 1 pound of lime if Paris green is used. 
A little over 1 pound of washing soda might be suffi- 
cient to neutralize the 4 pounds of copper sulphate, but 
it is safer to use more. In Ireland 5 pounds are used 
and for three successive years in extended trials this 
mixture has given better results than Bordeaux mix- 
ture. 2 At (N. Y.) Geneva Station, in 1904, it was not 
so good as ordinary Bordeaux mixture. 

Spraying with Bordeaux Mixture. — Benefits. — 
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture influences the potato 
crop in the following ways : 

1 . The structure 3 of the leaf shows a slight increase 

in thickness and in strength, and so offers more 
resistance to the growth of disease spores. 

2. The chlorophyll, 3 or green coloring matter of the 

leaf and stem, is increased. 



1 Me. Bui. 73, p. 55. 2 Department of Agric. for Ireland leaflet, 14. 

3 Frank & Kriiger. E. S. R., VI., p. 306. 



132 THE POTATO 

3. The transpiration 1 of moisture is greater in 

sprayed plants. Food is moved from the roots 
to the leaves in water, the food is worked over, 
and the water is given off. The more food- 
laden moisture passing through, the greater is 
the growth. 

4. The assimilation ' or taking in of food from the 

air by the leaves is much greater. 

5. The duration 1 of the leaves and vines 2 is greater. 

6. The growing period 3 is extended (Fig. 41), insur- 

ing a heavier yield. In Vermont blight often 
appears in August, and from then on the pota- 
toes have grown 50 bushels a week when the 
foliage was preserved. 

7. The tuber production 1 is increased, due to increase 

in the size of the tubers 4 and the number of 
tubers per plant. Jones & Morse, 5 of Vermont, 
show that the average yield for thirteen years 
(189 1 to 1904), without spraying, w r as 171 
bushels per acre, while the sprayed plats yielded 
286 bushels per acre, or an average annual gain 
of 115 bushels per acre. 

8. The dry matter 6 is increased. 

9. Starch formation 1 in the tuber is considerably in- 

creased. At Geneva, (N. Y.) Experiment Sta- 
tion 6 an increase of 7 per cent, was obtained. 
10. Where there is no disease 7 the yield may be in- 



1 Frank & Kriiger. K S. R., VI., p. 306 2 Vt. Report, 1899, p. 156. 

3 Vt. Bui. 40, pp. 26, 27 ; Report, 1899, p. 272. Can. Exp. Farms Report, 

1901, p 120. 

4 (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 221. 5 Vt. Bui. 106, p. 231. 

6 (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 221. 

7 K. S. R., Vol. IX., p. 765. (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 123, p. 234. 







1 5 



134 TH ^ POTATO 

creased by spraying, due to increased vigor of 
the plants. At the Vermont Experiment Sta- 
tion, 1 in 1900, the yield was increased 73 bushels 
per acre by spraying, although blight did not 
appear that year. 
Time of Spraying. — Thoughtfulness, thorough- 
ness, and timeliness are essential to success. A man 
must watch his crop, the season, and conditions; know 
for what he is spraying, and do it intelligently as w T ell 
as thoroughly. In wet years spraying should begin 
earlier than in dry. The first spraying should be given 
early enough to ward off the first attack. At Vermont 
Experiment Station, in 1900, 2 three applications were 
most economical, but the first one, that of July 26, was 
the most important, as half the entire gain was due to 
it; the sprayings on August 17 and September 8 were 
of about equal importance. At the same station, 3 in 
1903, one timely spraying on August 10 insured again 
of 124 bushels per acre. Some growers who sprayed 
twice in July secured little benefit, because by the time 
the blight appeared, the latter half of August, their 
plants were unprotected. No rule can be given; each 
man must watch for himself. In some districts it is 
profitable to give the first spraying when the plants are 
6 inches tall, and repeat every ten to fourteen days, or 
as conditions demand. 

Number of Sprayings. — At (N. Y.) Geneva Ex- 
periment Station, 4 in 1903, spraying potatoes five times 
gave an increase of 30 bushels per acre over three times, 
and three sprayings increased the yield 88 bushels per 



1 Vt. Report, 1900, p. 272. 2 Vt. Report, 1900, p. 273. 

8 Vt. Bui. 106, p. 231. 4 (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 241, p. 262. 



SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 1 35 

acre over no spraying. At Cornell Experiment Sta- 
tion ! one application of Bordeaux mixture, and three 
of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, increased the 
yield 103 bushels per acre, while another 2 year six 
sprayings increased the yield 48 bushels per acre. 
At Vermont Experiment Station 3 two applications 
have in general proved most profitable. The (N. Y.) 
Geneva Experiment Station recommend, as the re- 
sult of their trials to the year 1904, that spraying com- 
mence when the plants are 6 to 8 inches tall and 
thorough applications to be made at intervals of ten to 
fourteen days during the season, making five to seven 
applications in all. 

Insecticides are materials used to destroy injurious 
inserts. Poison is spread on the leaves to destroy 
leaf-eating insedls, and materials that kill by contact 
are used against insedrts that suck plant-juices. For 
poisoning the first class there are on the market a 
number of preparations, which may be grouped as 
follows: 4 

1. Standard Remedies. — Scheele's Green, Paris Green, 

London Purple, Hellebore. 

2. Commercial Substitutes. — Paragrene, Green Arsen- 

oid, Green Arsenite, Pink Arsenoid, Laurel 
Green, Arsenate of Lead, Disparene. 

3. Home-made Remedies. — Arsenite of Lime, Arsenite 

of Soda, Arsenate of Lead, Arsenite of Lead. 

4. Proprietary Remedies.— Bug Death, 5 Black Death, 6 

Hammond's Slug Shot, 5 Quick Death, Knobug, 



1 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 140, p. 402. 2 (N. Y.) Cornell Bui. 196, p. 48. 

3 Vt. Bui. 106, p. 230. 4 From (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 243, p. 329. 

5 For analysis, see (N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 190, p. 289. 



I36 THE POTATO 

etc. In most of these the amounts of arsenical 
compounds present is small. 
ContaSl Remedies — Standard. — Whale Oil Soap, Car- 
bon Bisulphide, etc. 

While some of the poisons in Group 4 (proprietary) 
have value, they are too expensive, and the work of 
various experiment stations shows that Paris green or 
arsenate of lead are cheaper and generally much 
more effective poisons. 1 

Paris green rarely occurs on the market pure. In 
New York the law requires that it contain 50 per cent, 
of arsenious oxide or white arsenic. Often some of 
this arsenic is soluble in water, and in such cases it is 
liable to burn foliage. If more than 4 per cent, of 
water soluble arsenic is present the sample should be 
condemned. 

Paris green tends to sink to the bottom of the spray- 
barrel; hence, unless kept well stirred, the concen- 
trated solution applied at the last may burn the foliage. 
It should be applied at the rate of about 1 pound per 
acre, in not less than 100 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. 
When applied dry, mix 1 pound of Paris green with 
50 pounds of land plaster, flour, slaked lime, or any 
other dry powder. 

At (N. Y.) Geneva Experiment Station, in 1904, 
Paris green was applied to potatoes at the rate of 3 
pounds per acre in 150 gallons of water. Four appli- 
cations were made during the season, and no injury to 
the foliage occurred. The results show that Paris 
green is of distindl fungicidal value, and, that it in- 



Me. Bui. 68, 87, c 



SPRAYS AND SPRAYING I37 

creased the yield of potatoes from 175 bushels per acre, 
on plats where bugs were removed by hand, to 221 
bushels per acre, and that it was better applied in 
water than in lime water. 

Lead Compounds. — Insoluble arsenate and arsen- 
ite of lead are recommended because they contain no 
injurious soluble arsenic, a heavy dose will do no 
harm, they lead all other materials in remaining in 
suspension, they adhere to the foliage, and they can 
be easily made at home and their purity insured. The 
articles required are sugar of lead (acetate of lead), 
costing 7^ cents per pound, wholesale, and arsenate 
of soda, costing 5 cents per pound, wholesale, at pres- 
ent. They may be dissolved in cold water, but for 
quick solution hot w T ater is better. The formula for 
making 1 pound of arsenate of lead — enough for 100 
gallons — is: 

Dissolve 24 ounces of sugar of lead in 1 gallon of 
cold water, and 10 ounces of arsenate of soda in 3 
quarts of water, both in wooden vessels. 1 When dis- 
solved, pour together into the spraying-tank. Pre- 
pared in this way, it is superior to any read}' prepared 
sample. Of the latter there are several makes, which 
may be used if but a small amount is required. ' ' Swift's 
Arsenate of Lead ' ' may be purchased in a white 
powder form or as a paste; it is easily mixed with 
water, but both forms settle more quickly in the spray- 
tank than the freshly made. Disparene retails at 25 
cents per pound, and is a heavy white paste which 
finally mixes well with water, but takes some time. 



Cal. Bui. 151. (N. Y. t Geneva Bui. 243. 



138 THK POTATO 

It has great adhesive power, and will not burn foliage. 
The Adler lead compounds are similar. 

Arsenite of lead is made by dissolving separately 1 2 
ounces of sodium arsenite and 4 pounds of sugar of 
lead, then pouring them into 150 gallons of water. 
The home-made mixture remains in suspension longer 
than the prepared. Pink arsenoid is arsenite of lead 
colored;, it is no more dangerous to foliage than Paris 
green, and is cheap. It will remain in suspension about 
twice as long as Paris green. 

Green arsenoid (copper arsenite) sometimes con- 
tains considerable soluble white arsenic, and is then 
dangerous to foliage, especially in a dry climate or 
time. 

White arsenoid (barium arsenite) is dangerous to 
foliage. 

Calco green and laurel green do not contain enough 
arsenic to render them of much value, and some sam- 
ples cause serious injury to foliage. 1 

Paragrene is a prepared compound containing, in 
some cases, considerable soluble * ' white arsenic, ' ' which 
is objectionable. 

Arsenic and lime is a cheap mixture. Boil 1 pound 
of white arsenic, costing 7 cents per pound, with 2 
pounds of lime in 2 gallons of water for forty minutes 
and add to 150 or 200 gallons of water. It cannot be 
safely applied alone, even with the addition of consid- 
erable lime, but may be used in Bordeaux mixture. 
The copper sulphate in the Bordeaux mixture seems 
to prevent the caustic action. If the lime and- arsenic 
fail to combine, the mixture is dangerous. 

1 Vt. Report, 1899, p. 271. Cal. Bui. 151, p. 24. 



SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 



139 



Cost of Spraying and Profits Derived. — In 1903, 

at the farm of J. V. Salisbury & Son, Phelps, N. Y., 
the total expense of spraying 1 14 acres five times was 
$55.76, the items being as follows: 



504 pounds of copper sulphate, at 6 cents 
8 bushels of lime, at 35 cents 
r2 pounds of white arsenic, at 5% cents 
55 hours' labor for man, at 17% cents 
47 hours' labor for team, at 17^ cents 

Wear of sprayer ........ 



30.24 
2. So 
.66 
9.63 
3.23 
4.20 



$55-76 

Cost of spraying per acre for each application was 
80 cents. 

Bushels 

Yield of sprayed rows, per acre 147 

Yield of unsprayed rows, per acre .... 83 

Increase in yield per acre ....... 64 

A good showing, considering that there was no blight 
this year. 

64 bushels per acre on 14 acres (S96 bushels), worth . S44S.00 
Less cost of spraying ........... 55.76 



Net profit on 14 acres $392.24 

Net profit per acre 2S.01 

Mr. Salisbury sprayed potatoes for his neighbors at 
80 cents per acre and furnished everything. In other 
experiments conducted in 1 904 b}~ the Geneva Experi- 
ment Station, the cost of each application was as low 
as 61 cents per acre, and the net profit as high as 
$60.00 per acre. 



(N. Y.) Geneva Bui. 241, p. 275. 



140 



THK POTATO 



Spraying Machines. 1 — A spraying outfit consists 
of a pump, nozzle, agitator, tank rods, hose, crop-spray- 
ing attachments, etc. They are made in various sizes, 
and are known as knapsack, carried and worked by a 
man; barrel, hauled by man or horse (Fig. 42), and 
worked by manual labor; and power sprayers, in which 
the pumping is done by gearing from the wheels, steam 




FIG. 42 — A SUGGESTIVE ENGLISH SPRAYING MACHINE 

Emphasis is laid upon coating the under surface of the leaves, and experi- 
ments show that it is profitable to do so under British conditions. 



or gas engines, compressed air or carbon dioxid. The 
pressure is generated in the pump; 100 to 120 pounds 
pressure per square inch gives a much finer spray than 
50 to 60 pounds. The power sprayers give the former, 
the manual labor sprayers rarely exceed the latter. 
The working parts of the pump should be of brass or 
bronze; rubber or leather valves, or any parts that Bor- 



1 Consult Mo. Bui. 50 and (N.Y.) Geneva Bui. 243. 



SPRAYS AND SPRAYING 141 

deaux mixture will corrode, are inadmissible. The 
pump should be easy to clean. 

The nozzle and the pressure determine the character 
of the spray. The Vermorel type of nozzle is one of 
the best; it does good work at a low pressure of 50 to 
60 pounds, but better work at 100 pounds. It does 
not throw the spra}' a great distance. The nozzle used 
should permit of being readily cleaned. 

The agitator may be (1) mechanical or (2) the jet 
type. The former is generally used and considered 
more efficient, dashers being used in barrel outfits and 
whirling paddles in large tanks. The jet type returns 
a stream of solution from the pump to the bottom of 
the tank. It can be made efficient on power sprayers, 
but deficiency of power bars their use on hand outfits. 

Tajiks. — Cypress, pine, and cedar are used in mak- 
ing tanks, the first being considered best. Their ca- 
pacity varies from 50 to 250 gallons. 

Hose. — The hose should withstand a pressure of 125 
pounds per square inch. Three and four ply are most 
used. Some prefer five and six ply. Half-inch hose is 
most commonly used; some prefer three-eighths of an 
inch. 

Crop-spraying Attachments. — The potato spraying 
attachment should carry two or more nozzles for each 
row. These should be capable of being turned up- 
ward when not in use, to prevent their clogging with 
sediment while drying. The spray should be thrown 
upward and sideways, to coat the under surface of the 
leaves as well as the upper surface. From two to six 
rows are sprayed at a time (see Frontispiece and Fig. 
42), and the attachment should fold or turn up to 



142 THE POTATO 

facilitate turning or going through a gateway. Sta- 
tionary nozzles cannot direcft the spray so well as hand 
nozzles; hence, more should be put on to make sure 
that the plants are coated. The cost of the extra 
amount of mixture is small compared with the cost of 
the labor used in applying it. 



CHAPTER XII 
HARVESTING 

Digging. — Early potatoes may be dug as soon as 
large enough. For late varieties which are to be 
stored it is necessary to wait until the tubers have at- 
tained full size, the haulm and leaves have died, the 
tubers come freely from the stem and have not to be 
jerked off, and the skins are firm and will not come 
off easily when rubbed. If the vines have been de- 
stroyed by blight the potatoes should not be dug until 
at least ten days after the vines are dead, as there is 
then less liability of rot in storage. 1 If frost sets in 
early and the growing season has been late, it may be 
necessary to dig before the potatoes are quite mature. 
In this case the shrinkage in weight, if stored, will be 
greater than if they had matured, and a reasonable offer 
for them straight from the field should not be declined. 
For storage, potatoes must be dug when dry, picked 
up at once, and kept cool. If possible, haul to some 
cool place at once, and let them cool all night before 
placing in storage. This is impossible where large 
quantities are grown, and in such cases good ventila- 
tion of the storage-place must be given to reduce tho 
temperature as quickly as possible. 

Methods Of Digging. — i. By Fork, Spade, cr 
Potato-hook. — The early potatoes are often dug by 
hand because they are so easily injured. The skin is 



Vt. Bui. 1 06. p. 233. 

143 



144 THE POTATO 

tender, the tubers adhere to the stem, and often require 
removal. It is a slow, tedious process, but nearly 
every potato is obtained. A man will dig one-eighth 
to three-eighths of an acre a day. With the main crop 
a man will dig from one-tenth to one-half acre a day at 
a cost generally varying between two and six cents 
per bushel, sometimes running to eight and occasion- 
ally lower than two cents, depending a great deal on 
the skill of the man, the yield, the soil, and state of the 
land. As weather conditions may retard digging, and 
labor is hard to obtain, this method is being discon- 
tinued except on small patches. 

2. Plow. — Plowing out with a common plow, or a 
potato plow, or so-called "digger," many of which 
are : 

Modified Shovel Plows. — All that I have tested have 
been failures. They dig some of the potatoes out and 
cover some up. On harrowing after them many more 
potatoes appear, and on digging the rows some may 
still be found. My experience has been that the pota- 
toes left in would more than pay for digging by hand. 
They may be useful for small growers on a light soil, 
and for those who, being short of labor, wish to save 
part of their crop. Six to ten hands and two horses 
will dig one and a half to two acres per day. In the 
Southern States early potatoes are plowed out, and 
ten cents per barrel is paid for picking them up. 

3. Mecha?iical Diggers. — The high-priced horse- 
power diggers, as the " Reuther " (Fig. 43), the 
"Hoover" (Fig. 44), and the " Dowden," are all re- 
ported as satisfactory machines. They work on the 
same principle. The shovel-point is forced under the 



HARVESTING 



145 



row of potatoes, and the row lifted and deposited on 
the elevator, which gradually shakes out the soil and 
leaves the potatoes in a row on the ground in the rear. 
These require two to four horses, according to con- 
ditions, and do better work on soils free from stones. 
The Standard Digger is different. A divided shovel 




FIG. 43 — THE REUTHER POTATO DIGGER 

lifts the row onto a shaker, which separates the pota- 
toes and soil, leaving the latter on the surface behind. 
This digger works well when potatoes are ridged or 
planted shallow, but when deep it does not do so well. 1 
One other form used successfully in Canada and Great 
Britain consists of a strong frame on two wheels and 
a small wheel in the front and rear. It carries a set of 
revolving forks working at right angles to the share, 



1 Minn. Bui. 52, p 439. 



I46 THE POTATO 

which pass underneath the row and raise it. The 
forks throw the potatoes and soil against a screen, 
w r hich lets the soil through but deposits the potatoes 




FIG. 44 — THE HOOVER DIGGER 

in a row. Several good diggers are made on this plan. 
Two or three horses are used. 

With a mechanical digger, four to six acres can be 
dug per day, and eight to sixteen hands are required 
to pick up. The cost of digging should not exceed two 
cents per bushel, and may be much less. Another ad- 
vantage of a digger is that if the land is clean it needs 
harrowing only to be in excellent shape for seeding to 
wheat. 



CHAPTER XIII 
STORING 

Potatoes may be stored in the open in piles covered 
with straw and earth, in cellars or root-houses, accord- 
ing to the climatic conditions. 

Piles. — These are useful for temporary storage in 
the North. Dig a trench about 3 or 4 inches deep, 3 
feet wide, and as long as desired; make the bottom per- 




^ 



=0 



FIG. 45 — POTATO SHOVEL 

fedlly level and firm, so that a potato shovel (Fig. 45) 
may be used on it when moving the potatoes. Throw 
the soil from the trench onto each side, making a bank 
about 15 inches wide with it. This will give a trough 
about 7 inches deep in which to empty the potatoes. 
Pile the potatoes neatly, so that the face of the pile at 
the center will be 3 feet or so high. When sufficient 
potatoes are stored, place about 3 inches thick of rye or 
wheat straw (oat straw being liable to heat and become 
mouldy) with the butts down and heads up on the 
sides and one end of the pile, leaving the other end 
for additional potatoes ( Fig. 46) . Then cover the straw 

147 



148 



THE POTATO 



with soil, beginning at the bottom and piling it toward 
the apex; 2 or 3 inches thick will be sufficient near 
the top with the straw, and 6 or 7 inches at the base. 
Finish the surface off by patting it with the spade so 




FIG. 46 — STORING POTATOES IN PITS 
Useful in climates where the winter is not severe. 



that it will turn rain. Dig a channel all around the 
pile, using this soil for the covering. The bottom of 
this channel should be below the floor of the pile, and 
have an outlet to let off water, thus insuring a dry bot- 
tom for the pile. Leave the ridge of the pile open to 
permit the moisture to escape when the potatoes 
" sweat." If it is desired to hold the potatoes in these 



STORING 149 

piles over winter, more soil or old hay must be put 
over them as the frost comes on. The mouth of the 
pile should be closed at night , and care should be taken 
to have no potatoes left on the ground at night. Rain 
or frost may come on and injure them, or retard the 
work. Sufficient covering must be put on the piles to 
prevent the rain and sun discoloring the potatoes. I 
have known a whole crop ruined by inattention to this 
point. The rain browns them, and the sun makes them 
green and unsalable. This method is not advisable in 
the Northern States unless one is sure that they will 
not want to sell or put up the potatoes until spring, as 
the pit cannot be opened during frost or in wet 
weather, and in spring moving potatoes on wet land is 
objectionable. 

Cellars. — If seed potatoes only are held, they may 
be kept in trays, bushel boxes, or barrels, storing 
these so that air can circulate under and round them, 
or they may be held in bins. 

Construction. — The location of the cellar should 
be dry and well drained. It should be built under- 
ground, of concrete, brick, or stone walls, with a 
plastered ceiling if a building is above it, to make a 
dead air-space between the plaster and the floor. Con- 
crete walls are readily made with clean gravel, sand, 
and cement, with boards to hold the material while set- 
tling. Use one part of Portland cement, three of sand, 
and six of gravel; mix the sand and cement, then add 
the gravel; wet and mix, and fill into the wall-space. 
To hold it in position while drying it is customary to 
use 1 -inch boards, nailed onto 2 x 4-inch studding, 
which may be placed 1 foot 6 inches on centers. To pre- 



1 50 THE POTATO 

vent sagging, the studding of one side is braced to that 
on the other side by fa x ^6 -inch iron strips, which 
are placed three feet apart each way, and nailed to the 
studding on each side. These are left in the wall, and 
the ends cut off when the boards are taken down. 
Apertures through which to shoot the potatoes should 
be left at intervals. One satisfactory cellar of which I 
know has a driveway through the center and bins on 
each side. The bins are about 10 feet wide and are 
filled 4 to 6 feet deep. Divisions are put in as desired. 

Ventilation and Temperature are most impor- 
tant. The potatoes must be kept cool, about 33 F. 
being a favorable temperature. If possible, lead air 
through a deep underground drain-tile into the cellar; 
the length of the tile should be sufficient to warm the 
air a little in winter, and the outside end of it should 
be covered to prevent the entrance of vermin. A 
ventilator on the roof will remove warm air. Have a 
raised board floor in each bin and a ventilator running 
from it up through the tubers at intervals. Have 
double doors at the entrance and the shoots, and keep 
the place dark. Darken the windows if there are any. 
A small cellar can be made if desired, but make the 
roof high enough to work in — say, 8 feet. Purchase a 
reliable thermometer and hang it in the cellar, an oil- 
stove and radiator, and, if the temperature is going 
down too low, warm the place. It is folly to have 
potatoes freeze to save ten cents worth of kerosene. 

The advantages of a cellar are: 

1. You can see how the crop is keeping. 

2. The conditions can be controlled. 

3. The potatoes can be sold at any time. 



STORING 151 

Losses in Storage. — Potatoes suffer loss in weight 
in keeping in addition to any loss due to disease or 
insert attacks. At Cornell University, during the past 
winter, the variety Sir Walter Raleigh, stored in crates 
in a cool cellar, lost 12 per cent, in weight between 
the date November 6, 1903, and April 27, 1904, a 
period of 173 days, while the variety Carman No. 3 
lost nearly 10 per cent. Neither variety had sprouted 
at all. This seems to show that in this district the 
latter is better for storage, and growers have noted 
this. Sir Walter Raleigh seems better adapted for 
selling from the field than for storage. No doubt 
other varieties vary in the same way, and the same 
variety will vary under differing conditions. At the 
Michigan Experiment Station a barrel of potatoes 
stored September, 1893, na cl lost 5 per cent, in weight 
by March 28, and 11.5 per cent, by May 1, 1894. R e ~ 
search shows that these losses are influenced by tem- 
perature and the state of moisture of the air. The 
higher temperature increases the loss, while the higher 
moisture content diminishes it. Light seems to have 
little influence upon the loss of weight, but is injurious 
because it diminishes the selling value of the potato. 
The average percentage losses of twelve varieties of 
potatoes carefully stored in a cool cellar at a tempera- 
ture of 42 ° to 51 ° F. during seven months, as recorded 
by E. Wollny, 1 are : October, 2.02 per cent.; Novem- 
ber, 1. 18; December, .50; January, .50; February, .81; 
March, .41; April, .50; the total loss aggregated, on an 
average, 6.17 per cent. In every case the losses were 



ik. s. R., III., p. 493. 



152 THE POTATO 

greatest diredtly after digging, and in February the 
losses' were higher than the month before or after. 
The size of the tuber, or whether the variety was early 
or late, had no perceptible influence. The three early 
varieties lost from 4.87 to 8.48 per cent., the five medi- 
um-early varieties from 4.55 to 6.78 per cent., and the 
four late varieties 5.71 to 7.28 per cent. These losses 
are believed to be lower than those usually assumed 
and observed. The loss of weight of these tubers 
from May to Odlober was 21.57 P er cent., considerably 
more than their loss from Odlober to May 1 . As soon 
as the sprouts begin to grow the loss is rapid. 

Nobbe found that about 75 per cent, of the loss of 
potatoes in storage is due to loss of water and 25 per 
cent, to respiration. As the potato is alive and 
breathes, its existence depends upon its using some of 
its stored-up energy. A ferment changes some of its 
starch into sugar, and this sugar is used to furnish 
energy. At low temperatures sugar formation contin- 
ues, but respiration and the use of the sugar diminishes, 
and at 30 F. to 28 F. (2 to 4 below freezing-point) 
respiration almost ceases; hence, frozen potatoes taste 
sweet because of the accumulation of sugar. 

E. Wollny believes that between 32 and 50 F. is 
the best range of temperature for holding potatoes. 

The adtual losses which may occur in storage as the 
result of disease cannot be definitely stated. 



CHAPTER XIV 

PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND 
MARKETS 

In the North the potato is a quasi-staple product. 
It can be kept a number of months in storage. In the 
South, except in cold storage, it cannot be kept long 
and is purely a garden- truck crop, but its culture is 
extending. 

2,836,196 farmers grew potatoes in 1899. The area 
was 2,938,952 acres, and the yield 273,328,207 bushels, 
valued at $98,387,614. The average value of the 
product per acre was $33.48, that of all crops was 
$10.04, while that of all vegetables was $42.09 per 
acre. The price per bushel varied between 22 cents 
in Iowa and Nebraska to $1.10 in Arizona, the 
average price being 36 cents. The average yield ' per 
acre in the year 1879 was 96.7 bushels; in 1889, 83.6 
bushels, and in 1899, 93 bushels per acre, although 
yields of 300 and 400 bushels are common, and over 
800 bushels have been obtained. 

In 1900 six States grew 51 per cent, of the potatoes 
(Figs. 47, 48) — viz., New York, Wisconsin, Michi- 
gan, Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Minnesota — while Ohio, 
Illinois, Maine, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, 
and California grew T 25 per cent. more. The sandy 
pine belt region, skirting the lakes, has shown a phe- 
nomenal increase in potato production. In Maine, 



1 Consult Twelfth Census Report 1902. 

153 



^ tO ^ N >i 5. 

it » » i » » — 




156 THE POTATO 

Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota the potato acre- 
age has increased faster than the population in the past 
ten years. New York comes in the same belt. The 
per capita production of potatoes in the United States 
is given as about 3.5 bushels. 1 About one-third of the 
total crop of the Southern States is shipped North as 
early potatoes, and some late potatoes are shipped back 
from the North. The consumption north of Mason and 
Dixon's line is about 4^ bushels per head, exclusive 
of potatoes used for seed or starch-making. The 
South consumes a relatively small amount, being less 
than 1^. bushels per capita. 

Knowing the approximate consumption and the 
area and condition of the crop (obtained from the 
United States Department of Agriculture reports, 
which are posted monthly), the farmer can form an 
idea of the outlook of the business. Thus, in 1903 
there were 2,916,855 acres grown, and the yield as 
now known was 247, 1 27,880 bushels. The table below 
w T ill show the uses to which this crop was put. In 
1904 as large an area would need to be planted (a 
larger one ought to be, because the population is in- 
creasing); hence, 10 bushels of seed are allowed per 
acre on: 

Bushels 

2,925 000 acres 29,250,000 

Plus 10 per cent, loss in storage . . . 2,925,000 
Used for starch-making, etc. (largely 

small potatoes, etc.) . . . . . . . 5,000,000 

Available for human consumption . . . 209,952,880 



247,127,880 



1 Consult Twelfth Census Report, 1902. 



PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 1 57 

The public can consume about three bushels of pota- 
toes per head per }^ear, and as there were 79,000,000 
people to be fed, it would require 237,000,000 bushels 
to furnish this quantity. The shortage of 27,000,000 
bushels insured a fair price, 61.4 cents per bushel 
being the average farm value. 

The States having a surplus of potatoes are the 
Southern and Eastern Coast States (notably Maine, 
Rhode Island, New Jersey, Virginia, and Florida), 
their market being the cities of the East and interior. 
The Trans- Mississippi and Nort western States also 
have a surplus. 

The potato trade is a home trade. The yield is sel- 
dom more than is required for home consumption, and 
several times it has been less — as in 1902, when over 
8,000,000 bushels were imported. 

Factors Influencing Farm Prices. — Farm prices 
are the net value of farm products to the producer upon 
delivery at the local market. Between the grow r er and 
the consumer profits must be made by the local buyer, 
the wholesaler, the retailer, and perhaps a broker or 
two, and the transportation companies. To yield a 
profit to the grower the price received from the con- 
sumer must exceed (1) the expenses of distribution, 
including transportation, (2) the cost of production. 
It may not. The market price is regulated by the law 
of supply and demand. 

In marketing live stock, cotton, grain, tobacco, and 
wool the main tendency is to eliminate the expensive 
middle man. This is easier accomplished with non- 
perishable products than with perishable ones. There 
are three reasons why the expensive middle man has 



158 THE POTATO 

been retained in the marketing of perishable prod- 
ucts — 

1. The extraordinary risks of depreciation. 

2. Insufficient capitalization of the distribution end. 

3. Absence of large-scale handling of the products. 
There is little consolidation in marketing potatoes. 

Generally speaking, selling on commission is antiqua- 
ted and should be abandoned, as it is the most demoral- 
izing feature of farming. The market is more stable 
when goods are bought and sold outright. An inter- 
esting feature is that rural districts are doing more of 
their own banking, so far as the financiering of the 
grain and some other crops is concerned, and the same 
will eventually be extended to potatoes. Cold storage 
improves prices, preventing slumps and excessively 
high prices, both of which are injurious. High prices 
inevitably lead to reduced consumption. The absence 
of public markets where consumer and producer can 
meet is a noteworthy feature of American cities and 
towns. Such markets have a salutary effect upon the 
distributor and middleman wherever they exist. The 
useless retailers are eliminated and the service of the 
survivor is improved, and both producer and public 
are benefited. 

One important cause of this lack of system is the 
poor roads. Hauling^ is high. It costs, on an average, 
25 cents to haul a ton of produce a mile, and in many 
cases more. 90 per cent, of all the freight handled 
by the railroads is brought to them on wagons; most 
of it is farm produce. With team and man at $3.50 
per day, the cost of hauling this freight aggregates 
about as much as the cost of running the railroads 









PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 1 59 



one year. It is useless to double the production of 
the farm unless we increase the facilities for market- 
ing the produce, and to do this it is imperative that we 
have good highways. In Belgium loads of farm prod- 
uce are hauled 60 to 70 miles in competition with the 
railroad. Let every farmer join the good roads' move- 
ment; then he w T ill be able to go to market with prod- 
uce on days when the land is too wet to work or 
when the price is high. How many miles will $1.25 
haul a ton of potatoes or other farm produce on a road, 
a trolley road, a railroad, and on water? 

$1.25 will haul a ton 5 miles on a common earth 
road ; 12^ to 15 miles on a well-made macadam road; 
25 miles on a trolley road ; 250 miles on a steam rail- 
way; 1,000 miles on a steamship. 

The value of cheap steamship transportation is seen 
in the Eastern potato trade. The prices of potatoes are 
better sustained in the Central States than in the East- 
ern because, although the tariff of 25 cents per bushel 
is an ample safeguard for the producer, as soon as 
potatoes are 50 cents per bushel, wholesale imports from 
Europe and the West Indies are apt to prevent them 
from going much higher. 

The South Atlantic States, from Florida to Virginia, 
supply the early potato trade of the Eastern cities. 
The water transportation enables them to handle large 
quantities at low rates, and to compete with Northern 
potatoes (old) during at least three months of the 
year. 

Modes of Selling. — i. The Local Market. — This 
deserves attention, as higher prices are received in it 
by the producer than when shipped away. 



l6o THE POTATO 

2. The Distant Market. — Many growers must ship. 
For such, combination is essential. The method 
adopted by the Eastern Shore potato farmers (Vir- 
ginia) is noteworthy. There are 2,500 shippers in the 
Exchange. They sell all their produce through select- 
ed receivers, appointed by the directors, in New York, 
Boston, and Philadelphia. The receivers charge 8 per 
cent, commission, of which 3 per cent, is given to the 
agent who solicits the business. This agent should 
be familiar with the market requirement and give in- 
structions in regard to methods of grading, assorting, 
and packing, and in this way render the produce more 
valuable. Combinations such as the following com- 
mend themselves : the use of the " registered label," 
which is similar toa (< union label," and is placed on 
all packages, or a trade-mark similar to that used by 
the Farmers' Produce Association, of Delaware, which 
carries the number of the shipper, and enables the 
selected salesman to inform the grower at once if any- 
thing is wrong. 



FARMERS' PRODUCE ASSOCIATION 
OF DELAWARE (27) 

The coritents of this package are 

GUARANTEED 

to be as good all through as on top 



Commission Rates. — In Cleveland potatoes are 
sometimes sold on a commission basis of 4 and 5 cents 
per bushel, or 10 per cent, of the sale price. In St. 



PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS l6l 

Louis the wholesaler purchases and makes his profit 
by selling to large customers and hucksters at an ad- 
vance of 10 cents per bushel over what they cost him 
in car lots. 

In Cincinnati the rate of commission is 3 cents per 
bushel. In Kansas City the brokerage for handling is 
2to2^ cents per bushel. In Richmond, Virginia, and 
Atlanta, Georgia, if not sold by the grower, 10 per 
cent, is the commission. In Lincoln, Nebraska, when 
potatoes retail at 80 cents per bushel, the money is 
divided about as follows: Retailer's share, 20 cents; 
wholesaler's share, 10 cents; railroad freight, 18 cents; 
seller's commission, 7 cents; net price to producer, 25 
cents ; 69 per cent, of the cost to the consumer goes 
to pay the transporters and distributors, and 31 per 
cent, to the grower. At Portland, Oregon, the com- 
mission is 5 per cent., and the burlap sacks in which 
the potatoes are handled cost about 5 cents each. 
The retailers sell at an advance of 10 to 30 cents per 
sack (100 pounds). At New York and Philadelphia 
8 and 10 per cent, commission will find good sales- 
men. The producer usually receives, net, between 
25 and 65 per cent, of the retail price of potatoes. 
Taking a number of market returns, they show that 
the producer's returns are about 63 per cent, of the 
price paid in the markets, and of this, in some cases, 
about half is paid to the railways for transportation if 
the goods are sent by rail, so that, then, roughly 
speaking, the producer, transporter, and distributor 
divide the customer's money equally. The value of a 
local market, where the producer can sell direct to the 
consumer, is apparent. 



1 62 THE POTATO 

Grading. — The proper grading of potatoes is essen- 
tial to success. Scabby, second-growth, ill-shapen, 
diseased, and undersized tubers must be removed 
from first-class grade. The grading may be done by 
having a sand screen on trestles set at such an angle 
that the potatoes roll down iito baskets at the bottom, 
while the dirt falls through, and the seconds and refuse 
are thrown into baskets or boxes on the side. Let tw r o 
men sort and one shovel, and have one emptying and 
bagging if they go into bags. A sack-holder is a con- 
venience in filling the bag. The small potatoes and 
dirt may be removed by a potato-sorter (Fig. 49), of 
which there are several types on the market. 

Packages. — Potatoes are sold by the pound, peck, 
bushel, barrel, cental, and car lot. The early potatoes 
are shipped in barrels holding 3 bushels (180 pounds). 
A canvas cover is nailed on the head. Such barrels 
cost about 20 cents, including the cover. The late 
crop is sometimes shipped in bulk in car lots. In the 
East seed potatoes are shipped in double-headed bar- 
rels containing 165 pounds, net. Such barrels cost, 
new, about 30 to 33 cents. Flour-barrels are often 
purchased at about 15 cents each instead. The high 
price of new barrels leads some to ship seed potatoes 
in strong burlap sacks which hold the same amount 
as a barrel. The sacks cost 15 to 20 cents less than 
the barrel. Boxes are used for shipping small quan- 
tities. On the Pacific Coast burlap sacks holding 
a cental (100 pounds), and costing 5 cents each, are 
used. 

Barrels. — Before filling, drive the hoops firm on the 
bottom and nail with shingle nails; drive on the bulge 



1 64 THE POTATO 

hoops, and secure with 3 or 4 barrel nails; then pro- 
ceed to fill. The potatoes should be shaken down oc- 
casionally while filling, and the barrels filled full, and, 
if headed, the head should be put in where it belongs 
with a screw press, so that the potatoes cannot rattle. 
The head should be nailed firmly with shingle nails. 
If in bags, sack them up well, and tie tight; or sew 
up, according to requirements. 

Bushel Boxes. — For marketing early potatoes in 
the local market bushel boxes or crates are often 
used. T. B. Terry uses a bushel box 13x16 inches 
and 13 inches deep, all inside measurement. The 
sides and bottoms are of ^Ms-inch, and the ends are 
^-inch, white wood. Hand-holes are cut in each 
end, and the upper corners are bound with galvanized 
hoop iron to strengthen them. They cost $25.00 to 
$30.00 per hundred at the factory, and weigh 6 to 7 
pounds each. Each box has a lid, so that in change- 
able weather the potatoes can be picked up and cov- 
ered as fast as dug. This box holds five pecks. The 
legal bushel for grain is 2,150.4 cubic inches, and in 
measuring potatoes the rule is to heap the half-bushel 
measure sufficiently to add one level peck to the two 
level half-bushels. Five level pecks are held in 2,688 
cubic inches. These boxes hold 2,700 cubic inches 
when level full ; hence, they may be piled three or 
four high on a wagon. The recent introduction of a 
crate in which the sides fold onto the bottom when 
not in use reduces the amount of storage room re- 
quired by about two-thirds. These crates cost the 
same as others, and appear to be equally strong. 

Advantages of a bushel box : 



PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, MARKETS 1 65 

i . Potatoes are put in the boxes and covered as soon 
as dug, thus preventing them from heating in 
the sun. 

2. They are easily and quickly loaded on a wagon, 

saving time. 

3. They are convenient packages in which to carry 

early potatoes to the home market. 

4. The potatoes may be left at the store in the box and 

delivered in the box when sold, saving handling 
and bruising. 

5. When drawing the main crop to the storage-cellar 

they are convenient to handle. 

6. They may be used for storing seed potatoes, apples, 

etc. , and carrying seed potatoes to the field to 
be planted. 



CHAPTER XV 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 

Composition. — Early attempts were made to deter- 
mine the food value of the potato by means of chemical 
analyses. In 1795 Pearson reported "Experiments 
and observations on the constituent parts of the potato 
root." Einhof published analyses of the potato in 
1805, as did Vanquelin in 181 7. Rather more than 
fifty years ago Emmons in this country reported anal- 
yses. Lawes and Gilbert devoted considerable time to 
the study of the composition of potatoes, and more re- 
cently various agricultural experiment stations, nota- 
bly the Connecticut State and the Minnesota Agricul- 
tural Experiment Stations, the Division of Chemistry, 
U. S. D. A., and various European institutions have 
been investigating the problem. The approximate 
chemical composition of a number of varieties is: 
Water, 75 per cent.; protein, 2.50 per cent.; ether ex- 
tract, .08 per cent.; starch, 19.87 percent.; fibre, .33 per 
cent.; other non-nitrogenous materials, .77 per cent.; 
ash, 1 per cent. A more extended analysis is taken 
from the Vermont Experiment Station, report 1901: 

TABLE XII 









^) 


5xo 






•Ki 






1 




8 

3 


Dextrin 
and 
Soluble 
Starch 






.8 








Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


79.41 


20.59 


14-5^ 


i-35 


0.09 


0.36 


2.28 


0.06 


1.26 


0.68 



166 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND MARKET VALUE 1 67 

The percentage of water usually ranges between 70 
and 80 per cent., the extremes being 65 and 85 per 
cent. Potatoes contain more dry matter than any root 
crop. 

Per cent. 

White turnips . _. 7 to 9 

Rutabagas 9 to 14 

Mangel-wurzels 9 to 16 

Sugar-beets 12 to 24 

Carrots 10 to 17 

Parsnips 10 to 18 

Potatoes 20 to 30 

About 85 per cent, of the matter is present in the 
solid portion, or marc, and 15 per cent, in the juice. 
It has been believed by many that the specific gravity 
of the tubers varied with the percentage of dry matter, 
and on this basis tables for ascertaining the dry matter 
present in the tubers from the specific gravity have 
been worked out and used considerably. From these 
data the starch content was determined. Woods, 1 of 
Maine, and Watson, 2 of Virginia, found that the ratio 
existing between the specific gravity and the starch 
content is not fixed. 

Starch is the most important constituent of the dry 
matter of potatoes; it generally constitutes 15 to 20 
per cent, of the fresh tubers, but may be as low as 10 
or as high as 25 per cent. Maine-grown potatoes are 
usually lower in their starch content than European- 
grown potatoes. The starch content varies with the 
variety and the locality. Northern-grown samples of 
the same variety usually contain more starch than 
Southern-grown samples. 3 

1 Me. Bui. 57, p. 150. 2 Va. Bui. 55, p. 102; Bui. 56, p. 144. 

3 Va. Bui. 56, p. 144. 



1 68 



THE POTATO 



TABLE XIII 
DIGESTIBILITY OF POTATOES 



Potatoes, with eggs, milk, 

and cream 

Potatoes, raw ! 

Potatoes, cooked 

Potatoes dried 2 and ground 





k 


3 


is 








-v» 


o 


*s 






Animal 


1 

3 




\ 




4 


4 






Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 




cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


Man 






90.6 


71.9 


93 .0 


Pigs 


97.0 


«4-5 




82.0 


98.1 


Pigs 


95-o 


82.0 




80.0 


97.6 


Sheep 


8o.i 




81.5 


*9-5 


92.0 



44.6 

40.0 



The above data show that potatoes are almost 
wholly digestible. 

Feeding Value. — When abundant and low in price, 
potatoes may be fed to all classes of stock. In France, 
Girard fed 55 to 66 pounds of cooked potatoes per day 
to fattening steers and 4^ to 6% pounds to sheep. 
Von Funke 3 found uncooked potatoes were good for all 
stock except pigs. He fed 60 pounds of raw potatoes, 
6 pounds of linseed meal, and 9 pounds of clover hay, 
with salt, per 1,000 pounds, live weight, per day to fat- 
tening steers. For milch cows, 25 pounds daily per 
1 ,000 pounds, live weight, is the limit. For yearlings, 
ewes, and wether sheep, 25 pounds per 1,000 pounds, 
live weight, per day is advised, and fattening sheep, 
40 pounds. For horses, about 12 pounds per 1,000 
pounds, live weight, may be given with other food. 
Stock should not be watered soon after feeding pota- 
toes, but preferably about half an hour before feeding. 
Potatoes 4 are not a valuable food for young animals, 



1 Snyder, Minn. Bui. 42, pp. 89, 90. 
3 E. S. R., V., p. 812. 



2 Kellner, et al. E. S. R., XIV., p. 595. 
4 Minn. Bui. 42, p. 95. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE 1 69 

as they are deficient in protein and ash — hence, should 
not be fed to growing cattle under two years old, 
lambs, or young pigs, unless in very small amounts, 
with other food to balance the ration. At Wisconsin 
Experiment Station, 1 hogs ate cooked potatoes better 
than uncooked, and 445 pounds of cooked potatoes were 
equal to 100 pounds of corn-meal in feeding value. 
One pound of dry matter of corn is superior to one pound 
of dry matter of potatoes for making gains w r ith pigs. 
Cooking. — In cooking potatoes a considerable 
portion of the albumen may be lost. Peeled potatoes 
started in cold w T ater lost 80 per cent, of albumen, 
while those started in hot water lost but 10 per cent. 
Less is lost if the potatoes are not peeled. Salt should be 
added to potatoes, because the mineral matter they con- 
tain is deficient in sodium salts, which are requisite for 
the human system, and because salt increases the pala- 
tability. Varieties vary in the time the}' require to 
cook, and even soil and climatic conditions have an 
influence. In a floury, mealy potato the starch grains 
have swollen and burst, and ruptured the cell- walls 
surrounding them, while in a soggy potato this has 
not taken place. Potatoes showing second growth 
will not cook uniformly; the last-grown portion will 
cook first. When second growth takes place the 
starch passes from the older portion to the new; hence, 
when cooked, the older portion appears to be hard and 
dark, while the newer portion is w T hite and floury, the 
difference being due to the presence or absence of 
starch. 



1 Wis. Seventh Annual Report, 1890, and Henry, " Feeds and Feeding," 
p. 212. 



I70 THE POTATO 

Uses. — Potatoes are used as human food, stock food, 
for the manufacture of starch, 1 syrup, alcohol, dextrin, 
etc. Potatoes may be preserved as ensilage 2 for stock 
feeding, while the pomace 3 resulting from starch manu- 
facture and potato feed 4 have received attention for 
the same purpose. Potatoes may be dessicated, and in 
this form can be easily preserved in the tropics and 
anftic regions, and thus furnish an excellent article of 
diet in a convenient form for transportation. The in- 
dustry is small at present, but can be readily extended. 



1 U. S. D. A. Div. of Chemistry, Bui. 58. 

2 U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 79, p. 21. 

3 Me. Sta Report, 1896, p. 28. Bui. 65, p. 115. 

4 Vt. Bui. 82, p. 72. 



CHAPTER XVI 

BREEDING AND SELECTION-PROPAGATION AND 
BREEDING 

Potatoes are propagated from seed, cuttings, lay- 
ers of green shoots, sprouts from the eyes of tubers, 
or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. 
About the beginning of the eighteenth century Shirreff , 
of England, wrote that " the potato is to be considered 
a short-lived plant," and that " the only way to obtain 
vigorous plants and to insure productive crops is to have 
frequent recourse to new varieties raised from seed." 
Dr. Hunter and T. A. Knight held the same views. 
T. A. Knight stated that late planting tended to re- 
invigorate a degenerating variety. 1 The value of rais- 
ing new varieties from seed is recognized to-day, and 
for their production some modern breeders select as 
parents two varieties, which in most qualities bear close 
resemblance to each other, avoiding the use of oppo- 
sites, the claim being that it is easier to fix the type. 
Others, including Burbank and Garton, make crosses 
between widely divergent types, although it takes 
longer to fix the ones the}' seledt and there is a lower 
percentage worth}' of a trial. There is, however, more 
chance of obtaining something above the average. 
Wide crosses act upon the characters in the plant in a 
manner similar to a vigorous push on the pendulum of 
a clock — it goes higher on each side: plants of higher 

1 Miner's " Gardeners' Dictionary." ed. 1807, " Potatoes. " and Don's 
"Gardeners' Dictionary," 1831-38, Vol. IV., pp. 400-406. 

171 



172 THE POTATO 

value and plants of lower value than either parent are 
secured. A plant of high value is secured and grown 
for a period of years in order to fix it. Those who 
have regarded the valuable characters which led to the 
selection of the individual as fixtures from the beginning 
claim that this period of fixing is solely for the pur- 
pose of elimination of the undesirable characters, and 
that it ought to be termed ' ' the elimination period ' ' 
rather than ' ( the fixing period. ' ' The interrelationship 
of different qualities is not w T ell know r n, but it has been 
noted that a variety having a few thick stalks yields 
large tubers, but few in number, while a number of 
w r eak stalks is often found with a number of small 
tubers. Early ripening and resistance to blight or rot 
{Phytophthora infesta?is) are not generally found to- 
gether. It is claimed that a large production of seed- 
balls goes hand in hand w 7 ith a small production of 
tubers. T. A. Knight claimed that varieties which did 
not bloom readily could be induced to do so by removal 
of the soil from round the tuber-bearing stems, the ex- 
planation offered being that the plant's failure in tuber 
production would stimulate the production of seed. 1 

In pollenizing varieties artificially the stamens should 
be removed from the female parent with fine pin- 
cers just as the bloom opens, or before, and the flower 
enclosed in a paper or gauze bag. The proper time to 
apply the pollen is known by the moist appearance of 
the stigma. The pollen from the desired variety should 
be dusted on the stigma on two or three successive 
days. The bag may be removed when the stigma dies 



1 Philosophical Transactions, 1806. 



BREEDING AND SELECTION 



173 



and the bloom withers. The fruit, or seed-ball, may 
contain from 100 to 300 seeds. These are washed from 
the ripe seed-balls, dried, and at the proper season 
sown under glass, or in a hot-bed, or out-of-doors in 





FIG. 50 POTATO FLOWER, WITH CALYX AND COROLLA REMOVED 

On the left are shown the anthers closed round the pistil. On the right the 
anthers are expanded, pistil not shown The inner surfaces of the anthers 
show the line where rupture occurs when the pollen is liberated. Gener- 
ally this occurs only near the upper portion of the anther. 



flats. The seeds germinate rapidly. Later they are 
transplanted to a well-prepared piece of land outside. 
The distance apart varies with different growers — from 
12x12 to 26x26 inches, and sometimes more. The up- 
right stem bears leaves and the axils of the first leaves 
bear shoots, which turn downward into the ground 
and bear tubers. The old idea that the first year's 



174 



THE POTATO 



crop consist of small tubers, the next larger, and so 
on, does not always hold, as a tuber weighing over 
seven ounces has been 
produced the first year. 
The Burbank potato was 
full size the first year it 
was grown from seed, 
and many breeders feel 
that unless the tubers 
are of edible size the 
first year they are not 
likely to be worth fur- 
ther care. Frequently 
the tubers do not reach 
full size until the second 
year. 1 The tubers from 
each plant must be kept 
separate, the best seledled 
and planted again. The 
distance apart varies be- 
tween 26x12 and 40 x 
40 inches. Wider plant- 
ing permits the Study of Fig- 3). d— Attachment of stamens, 
, -. • 1 • • 1 -, atvi removed to prevent self-fertilization. 

the individual. The ,_ Petals> partly torn away to expose 

third, fourth, and fifth ovary. /—Sectional view of calyx. 

3^ear field culture is given, 

and a variety may be found worthy of a name and 
further trial before distribution. The breeder's aim is 
to produce varieties w r hich excel in productivity, 
power to resist diseases, earliness, quality, percentage 




FIG. 51 — PISTIL OF POTATO 
FLOWER, SHOWING THE PARTS 
a — Stigma, where pollen is applied. 
b — Style, down which the pollen tube 
goes to the ovary, c, where it fertilizes 
the ovule, which become the seeds (see 



Minn. Bui. 87, p. 10. 



BREEDING AND SELECTION 1 75 

of starch, and have other desirable characteristics — as, 
suitable shape, color, depth of eyes, etc. 

Selection. — Hybridizing is of small value unless 
attended by careful selection and vigorous elimination 
of the poorer types. All potatoes tend to vary in cul- 
tivation, either to improve or degenerate. This varia- 
tion is more marked in some plants than in others; 
hence, once a variety is established, the yield ma}- be 
materially increased and the rapid deterioration of 
the variety prevented by selection of the best plants. 
Selection must be made in the field, not from the bin. 
The whole plant must be considered, not a single 
tuber. Goff 1 showed that by perpetuating the most 
productive and least productive plants of Snowflake 
potatoes the total yield of the most productive one for 
two years was 322 ounces, while that of the least pro- 
ductive was but 100 ounces, and, summarizing fourteen 
years' trials, the most productive plants yielded 180 
per cent, more than the least productive. Bolley, at 
North Dakota, found that "equal weight pieces from 
small or large tubers of the same vine are of equal 
value, provided all are normally mature," 2 confir- 
matory evidence that the whole plant is the unit of 
selection. 

Growers may at least maintain the productivity of 
their stocks of potatoes by careful selection of the best 
plants when digging, careful storage of these tubers, 
and then using all of them for seed. These might be 
planted by themselves on a piece of good land, and se- 



1 (X. Y.) Geneva Report, 1887, p. 85. Wis. Report, 1899, p. 306. 

2 N. D. Bui. 30, p. 243. 



176 THK POTATO 

ledtions made from them at the following harvest, the 
best plants being again retained for the nursery plat 
and the balance used as seed. 

A. Girard, 1 one of the foremost potato growers of 
France, selects his potatoes every year from those 
hills whose foliage is especially luxuriant. He uses 
the variety Richter's Imperator, and prepares the soil 
to a depth of 12 to 16 inches, giving a liberal applica- 
tion of barn-yard manure and fertilizers, acid phos- 
phate, sulphate of potash, and nitrate of soda. He 
seledls, for planting, tubers weighing from 3^ to 4 
ounces. When he cannot get such, he recommends 
that tubers of 7 ounces in weight be cut in two, and 
tubers of io}4 ounces into three pieces — always cutting 
in the direction of the greatest length. He insists on 
the rejection of all potatoes weighing more than 11 
ounces. If the potatoes available for planting weigh 
less than 3^ ounces he places in each hill several 
smaller tubers, enough to bring the total weight to 
about 4 ounces. He lays great stress on the distance 
between the plants; the rows are 24 inches apart and 
the tubers are planted 19 inches in the rows, these dis- 
tances having been determined to be best by careful 
experiment. He advises early planting, as soon as 
danger from frost is past. The crop should be well 
worked and all potatoes kept covered, and the tops well 
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, and the crop not dug 
until all of the tops have withered. Farmers in the 
co-operative experiments under his direction report 
yields of 400 to 700 bushels per acre as common, and 

1 E. S. R., V., p. 117. 



BREEDING AND SELECTION 1 77 

even up to 1,353 bushels per acre with a starch content 
of 20 to 25 per cent. One farmer secured almost 
10,000 pounds of starch per acre, probably one of the 
largest yields of carbohydrates ever obtained from an 
acre of land. 



APPENDIX 



Spray Calendar 



Disease 


Spray 


First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 




or 
Insect 


Mixture 


Spraying 


Spraying 


Spraying 


Spraying 


REMARKS 


Earlv 


Bor- 


When 


7 to 14 


'• 7 to 14 


7 to 14 




Blight 


deaux 


plants 


days 


days 


days 






mixture 


are 4 to 

6 in. tall 


later 


later 


later 




Late 


Bor- 


As for 








Up to 7 spray- 


Blight 


deaux 


earlv 


do. 


do 


do 


ings are some- 




mixture 


blight 






times given 


Rosette 


Treat the 
seed 












Flea- 


Bor- 


When 


Repeat 


As for 




A deterrent 


beetle 


deaux 
mixture 


beetles 
appear 


if neces- 
sary 


1 and 2 




only 


Colorado 


Paris 


When 


Repeat 


As for 




1 pound Paris 


Polato- 


green or 


beetles 


if neces- 


1 and 2 




green per acre 


beetle 


other 


appear 


sary 






in 100 gallons 


or 


arsenites 










or more of Bor- 


"Bugs"' 


in Bor- 










deaux mixture. 


and 


deaux 










Arsenate of 


Blister- 


mixture 










lead, 3 pounds 


beetles 












to 50 gallons. 


or old- 












Arsenite of 


fashion- 












lead. 3 pounds 


ed Potato 












to 50 gallons. 


bug 












Green arsen- 
oid 1 pound 
per 100 gallons. 


Grass- 


Paris 


When 


Repeat 






As for C 1 0- 


hopper 


green or 

other 
arsenites 

in Bor- 
deaux 

mixture 


they 

appear 


it neces- 
sary 






rado beetle 



179 



l8o THE POTATO 

Seed Treatment 

Disease Treatment 

Scab Soak uncut seed in formalin, i 

pound to 30 gallons of water, for 
two hours; then dry and plant on 
scab-free soil.. 

Rosette {Rkizoctonia) . As for scab. 

Dry Rot . Diseased tubers to be destroyed; 

those in contact with them to be 
treated as for scab and sprayed 
as for blight. 

Wet Rot (due to Blight 

or Bacteria) .... Have seed potatoes in such storage 

that they can be examined, and 
these tubers sorted out and de- 
stroyed. Do not plant affected 
tubers. Soaking them in forma- 
lin, as for scab, is advisable in 
some cases, depending on the 
cause. 

Stem Rot or Dry End 
Rot (Fusarium oxyspo- 

rum) It attacks the stem-end first; hence, 

cutting off this end of suspected 
tubers will reveal the disease. 
Discard diseased tubers. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Acid Phosphate 43,47,119 

Acme Harrow 23 

Ammonium Salts as Fertilizers 31 

32. 42, 47, 119 

Area in Potatoes in 1899 . . 153, 156 

in 1903 156 

Arizona Potato 1 

Arsenate of Lead 135, 137 

Arsenical Poisoning .... 123, 127 

Arsenious Oxide 136 

Arsenite of Lead .... 135. 137, 138 

Lime 135, 138 

Soda 135 

Available Phosphoric Acid . . 43 

Bacteria, Useful 40, 41 

Bacterial Diseases 122 

Bags 161, 162 

Barium Arsenite 138 

Barn Manure ... 36, 37, 44, 46, 119 

Amounts used 36, 37 

Barrels 162, 164 

Filling 162 

Size of 162 

Bermuda Potato 4. 5 

Black Death 135 

Blight, Early, or Leaf Spot Dis- 
ease 118, 178 

Late, or Rot . 112, 113-117, 121, 178 

Blister Beetles 127, 178 

Blooms '. 4. 5 

Encouraging 172 

Blossoming 16, 172 

Bordeaux Dust, or Dry Bor- 
deaux 130 

Bordeaux Mixture . 115, llo, 118, 123 

124, 128. 131 

Benefits from Use of . 115, 118. 124 

131. 132 

for Flea-beetles 123, 124 

Mixing 129 

Strength of Solution 130 

Testing 130 

Botany 1-7 

Boxes 162 

Bushel 164, 165, 

Breeding 171 

Buckwheat 29 

as a Cover Crop 29 

in a Rotation 29 

Bug Death 135 



PAGE 

Bugs, or Potato Beetle . . . 124, 125 
Bundle Blackening, or Dry End 

Rot 122, 179 

Bushel. Weight of a 162 

Calcium, Influence of . . . . 35, 36 

Calco Green 138 

Carbon Bisulphide 126 

Castor Pomace 32 

Cellars, Construction of .... 149 

for Storing 149, 150 

Temperature of 150, 152 

Ventilation of 150 

Chloride, Calcium, injurious . . 34 
Chlorides, Injurious to Growth, 

34,43 
Varieties with Heavy Foliage 

Readily Injured by 34 

Climate, Influence of . .8. 66, 111 
Clover, Value for Plowing Un- 
der 27, 28 

Red 27 

Crimson 27, 28 

Sweet 28 

Clover, Influence on Yield ... 27 

Cold Storage 153, 158 

Color of Skin 76 

Colorado Beetle 124, 125 

Commission Rates 160, 161 

Composition, Chemical 132, 166, 167 

Influenced by Spraying. ... 132 

Consumption of Potatoes . 156, 157 

Cooking 169. 170 

Quality 70, 72-74 

Co-operative Methods of Mar- 
keting 160 

Copper Arsenite 138 

Sulphate 128, 129 

Cottonseed-meal 32, 48 

Cost of Selling 161 

Cover Crops 28, 29 

Cow-peas. Value for Plowing 

Under 27, 28 

Crepidodera cucumeris, or Flea- 
beetle 123 

Crop Producing Power of Soil 

Reduced 18 

Cultivation 105-109 

Method of 107 

Tools Used In 107 

Cultivations, Number of . . 105, 106 

181 



182 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Culture, Levei 107 

Systems of 106 

Cutworms 127 

Darwin's Potato 1 

Date of Planting 96 

Depth of Planting 93-96 

Influence on Quality 96 

Influence on Tuber Forma- 
tion 94, 95 

Dessicated Potatoes 170 

Digestibility of Potatoes .... 168 
Diggers, Mechanical .... 144-146 
Digging the Crop 117, 143 

Methods 143, 144 

Disease Resistance Required in 
a Variety 71 

Relation of Temperature to . 9 
Disease-resisting Varieties . 75, 116 

Disk Harrow 23, 24 

Disparene 135, 137 

Distance Apart 91-93 

Doryphora decemlineata, or Po- 
tato Beetle 124, 125 

juncta, or Southern Potato 

Beetle 124 

Drainage 17, 116 

Dried Blood 31 

Drills 106 

Dry End Rot 122 

Dry Rot 122 

Early Blight 118, 179 

Planting 97 

Ensilage, Potato 170 

Epicauta vitatta 127 

Epitrix subcrinata, or Flea- 
beetle 124 

Eyes 6 

Depth and Frequency of . .71, 79 
Relation of Number of Stalks 
Produced to 62, 63 

Farm Prices ........ 157, 161 

Feed, Potato 170 

Feeding Potatoes to Stock . 168, 169 

Value 168, 169 

Fertilizers ....... 30, 31, 37-40 

Amounts Used 30,37,38 

Applying 48 

Compounding 46 

Cost of 45 

For Early Potatoes .... 35. 39 

Function of 39-41 

Important Ingredients in .42, 43 
Influence of Period of Growth 
Upon the Necessary .... 31 

Mixing 46, 47 

Poor Mixtures of 47, 48 

Profit from Use of ..... 37, 38 



PAGE 

Fertilizers, Purchasing . 42, 43, 44,45 
Value of Home Mixing of . . 46 
Valuable .... 37, 38, 40, 176, 177 

Valuing 39,40,43^6 

Fixing New Varieties 172 

Flavor 60, 74 

Flea-beetle 82, 114, 118, 123 

Punctures Injurious . . 82, 114, 118 

Flowers 3, 5 

Formalin 69, 118, 119, 122 

Too Strong a Solution Injuri- 
ous 69 

Fungicides 128 

Fusarium oxysporum . . .122, 179 



Gelechia Operculella Zell., Po- 
tato Worm 125, 126 

Good Roads, Value of . . . 158, 159 

Grading Potatoes 162 

Grasshoppers 126 

Green Arsenite 135 

Green Arsenoid 135, 138 

Growth, Conditions Influenc- 
ing 8, 16, 30 

Effect of Chlorides on 34 

Influence of Dry Weather on . 9 

Manuring 30 

Influence of Respiration on . 9 
Influence of Time of, on Fer- 
tilizing 31 

Obstructions to Ill, 127 

Period of 14, 31 

Habitat of Potato 1 

Hammond's Slug Shot 135 

Harrow, Acme 23 

Disk 24 

Spike-tooth 107 

Spring-tooth 23, 24 

Harrows, Action of, on the Soil 24 

Harvesting 143 

Methods of 143 

Hauling Farm Produce . . 158, 159 

Cost of 158, 159 

Haulm 34, 71, 80, 81 

Hellebore 135 

Hilling 14, 18 

Time of 16 

Hills 106 

Humus, A Food for Bacteria . . 41 
Effects on Physical Proper- 
ties of the Soil 23 

In Soils 21,41,42 

Influence of Tillage on ... . 105 

Influence on Depth of Plowing 21 

Influence on Soil Moisture . . 23 

Hybridizing 171-173 

Imports of Potatoes 157 



INDEX 



183 



PAGE 

Insecticides 135,136 

Insuluble Phosphate of Lime . 43 
Introduction into Virginia ... 2 

into Europe 3, 7 

Irrigation, Amount of Water 

Used in 48, 49 

Dangers of 49 

Value of 48,49 

June Bug 126 

Kainit 43,48,119 

Kno-bug 135 

Lachnosterna 126 

Late Planting 97 

Laurel Green 135, 138 

Leaf 71,81,82,114,131,132 

of Rust-resistant Varieties of 
Wheat 82 

Spot Disease, or Early Blight 

118, 178 

Value of a Tough, Hard . . 81, 82 
Level Culture 106, 107 

Objections to 106 

Light, Influence on Yield ... 8 
Lime 35, 36, 41, 119, 128 

Uses 41, 128 

Liming 31, 32 

London Purple 135 

Loss of Potatoes in Storage 151, 152 



Macrosporiiim solani, or Early 

Blight 118, 178 

Manure 30, 36, 37, 44 

Amounts Applied 36, 37 

Influence of 30 

Value 44-46 

Manuring, Reasons for 30 

Marketing, Cost of 160, 161 

Markets 157, 158 

Distant 157, 160 

Local 159, 161 

Maturity, Time of 71,79,80 

Melanoplus sp 126 

Mexican Potato 1 

Moisture, Conservation of Soil, 22, 23 

Influence of 8, 9 

Mulch, Soil 106, 109 

Mulching 110 

Nitrate of Soda . . .31, 32, 42. 47, 48 

Effect on Buds 69 

Nitrates 42 

Nitrogen 30,31,42 

Effect of Excess 31 

Influence of 31 

Occurrence in Fertilizers . . 42 



PAGE 

Nitrogen of Barn Manure ... 36 
Requirement while Young . . 31 
Sources of 31, 42 

Nozzles 141,142 



Organic Nitrogen of Fertilizers 42 
Oospora scabies (Thax./, Scab, 

119, 121 

Packages 161 

Paragrene 135. 138 

Paris Green . . 124, 125, 127, 135. 136 

Amount to use 125, 127 

for Flea-beetles 124 

for Potato Beetles 125 

Peas in Rotation 27 

Phosphatic Fertilizers . 35, 42, 43, 47 

Effect on Maturity 35 

Phosphoric Acid, Influence of . 35 
Phytophthora infestans, Blight 

or Rot 112-117, 121 

Pits 147-149 

Pimply Potatoes 124 

Pink Arsenoid 135, 137 

Planters 100-104 

Hand 100, 101 

Horse 101-104 

Planting, Date of 96, 97 

Depth of 14,93-96 

Distance Apart 91-93 

Early and Late 97 

Hand 59. 97-100 

Influence of Depth on Depth 

at which Tubers Form . . 94-96 
Influence of Depth of, on 

Quality 96 

' Methods of 59, 97-100 

Plow, Potato or Shovel 144 

Plowing 21-23 

Conditions Governing . . . 21,22 

Deep 21,42 

Depth of 21, 22 

Fall 21 

Plowing, Spring 22 

Pollen 3, 172 

Pollenizing 172 

Pomace, Potato 170 

Potash, Amounts Applied . . 35, 38 

Influence of 31, 33 

on Leaves 32 

on Quality 33, 34 

on Roots 32, 33 

on Starch Formation . . 33, 34 

on Tubers 32, 33 

Muriate of ... . 33, 34, 38, 43, 119 

Amounts Used 38 

Sources of 33 

Sulphate of .... 33, 34, 43, 119 

Potassic Fertilizers 43 

Potassium Ferro-Cyanide ... 130 

Potato Beetle 124, 125 

Bug, Old Fashioned . . . 127, 178 



184 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Potato, seed 5, 6, 173 

Stalk Weevil 126 

Worm 125, 126 

Preparation of Land 21-23 

Pressure Required for Spraying. 140 

Prices, Average 153 

Farm 157 

in Eastern and Central States . 159 

Production 153-157 

Propagation 171 

Pumps 140 

Quality, Cooking 70 

Influence of Depth of Tubers 

on 96 

Quick Death 135 

Rainfall, Amount Sufficient . 48, 49 

Rape as a Cover Crop 29 

Respiration 9, 10, 152 

Influence of Temper at ore 

on 9, 10 

Rhizoctonia solani 118, 179 

Roads . . . . 158 

Roots 6, 10, 55 

Character of 11,14,15 

Depth of 11,14,15 

Effects of Tillage on 14 

Rosette Disease 118, 179 

Rot, or Late Blight . 112, 113-117, 121 
Rotation . 26-29, 116, 118, 119, 121, 127 

Factors in 26, 27, 50 

Five-course 26 

Four-course 26 

Leguminous Crops in a . . 27, 28 

Maine 26 

Ohio 27 

Three-course 26 

Rust-resistant Varieties of 

Wheat 82 

Rye 27-29, 120 

Sack-holder 162 

Sacks, Cost of 161,162 

Scab 119,121 

Scheele's Green 135 

Season, Influence of 66, 111 

Second Growth 12,85 

Seed 5,6,173 

Amount per Acre 63, 64 

Bud, Stem Ends, and Middles. 66 

Cost of 64 

Cutting 60 

Effect of Insufficient Amount. 104 
Importance of a Good Strain 

of 51,53 

Proper Storage of .... 52, 53 

Selection 52,74,175 

Influence of Altitude .... 52 
Management Previous to 
Planting 53 



PAGE 

Seed, Methods of Storing . . 53, 54 
Northern and Southern ... 51 
Relation of Number of Stalks 

to the Eyes on 62, 63 

Relation of Weight to Viabil- 
ity of 67 

Single Eyes 62, 64 

Size of 61-65, 67, 175 

Source of 51 

Sprouting 53-60 

Time to Cut 61 

Treatment for Diseases ... 179 
Uses of Second Crop for . 52, 53 

Viability of 66, 69 

Whole and Cut 60-63, 65 

Seed-balls 1, 5, 173 

Selection 52,175 

Shape of Tuber 5, 71, 78 

Shovel, Potato 147 

Size of Tubers, Variation in . . 75 

Skin 5,71,78,120 

Color of . . 76 

Cracked 84 

Desirable 78 

Soil Moisture, Conservation of 

22,23 

Soils 17-25, 153 

Changes in 41 

Chemical Composition and 

Crop Producing Power of . 30 
Composition of New York . 39 
Diminished Crop Producing 

Power of 18 

Ingredients Removed by Pota- 
toes from 39,40 

Preparation of 21-23 

Relationship of Varieties to 19, 87 

Sandy Loam 17 

Solanum commersoni 1 

Solarium jamesii 1 

maglia 1 

tuberosum ... 1,3 

var. Boreale 1 

Soluble Phosphate of Lime . . 43 

Sorters, Mechanical 162 

Specific Gravity of Tubers . . 167 

Spray Calendar 178 

Spraying Attachments . . 140, 141 

Cost of 139 

Effect on Yield .... 132,134 

Hose 141 

Spraying, Machines 140 

Nozzles 141, 142 

Pressure Required for .... 140 

Profits from 139 

Pump 140 

Tanks 141 

Time of 134 

Sprayings, Number of ... 134, 135 
Sprays and Spraying . . . 128-142 
Spring-tooth Harrow . . . . 23, 24 
Starch. 31, 72,73, 78, 132, 167, 170, 177 
Content and Specific Gravity . 167 



INDEX 



185 



PAGE 

Starch, Distribution in the Tuber 

72, 73, 78 

Production 31, 132, 177 

Stem Rot 122, 179 

Storage 52, 143-152 

in Cellars 149, 150 

in Pits 147-149 

Losses in 143, 151, 152 

Temperature for . . 53. 151, 152 

Striped Blister Beetle 127 

Subsoiling 20, 21 

Sulphur 120 

Sun Scald Ill 

Sweet Clover as a Green Manure, 28 

Tanks 141 

Tile Drainage 17 

Tillage 14, 42, 105, 106, 109 

Deep 14 

Objects of 106 

Shallow 14, 195, 109 

Value of 42 

Tip Burn Ill, 112 

Tobacco Leaf Miner .... 125, 126 
Tools for Cultivation . . . . 107-109 

Surface-fitting 23 

Tomato Worm 127 

Transportation, Cost of ... . 159 

by Rail 159 

by Road 158, 159 

by Water 159 

Trays 54, 60 

Trichobaris trinotata 126 

Tuber Formation . 6, 16. 54. 55, 94 
95. 172 

Depth of 54. 55, 94. 95 

Retarding of 172 

Stimulation of 54, 55 

Tubers, Hollow 74 

Number Formed by a Plant . 74 

Rate of Growth of 16 

Size of Seedling 173. 174 

Type, Varieties Not True to . 72, 85 



Unit Value of Fertilizers .... 44 
Uses of Potatoes i70 

Value per Acre 153 

Varieties . . 19, 51, 72, 75, 76,83-90 
171-174 

Breeding New 171-174 

Disease-resisting 76 



PAGE 

Varieties, Duplication and Re- 
naming of 85. 86 

Fixing New 172 

Importance of New 171 

Improvement in 84 

Influence of Soil and Condi- 
tions on 19, 87 

Influence of, on Yield .... 75 

Life of Modern 83 

Life of Older 83, 84 

List of -88-90 

Most Popular 87-90 

Staying Power of 83 

Testing 86 

True to Name 85 

True to Type 72 

Variety. Selecting a 70-90 

Variation in the 52-54 

Viability of Tubers 66-69 

Vigor of the Plant . . 7l. 82-85, 118 
Indications of Deficiency in . 84, 85 



Washing Soda and Copper Sul- 
phate Mixture 131 

Water, Available 48 

Requirement 33. 48-50 

Effect of Fertilizers on . . . 33 
Per Pound of Drv Matter . 50 

Weeder 108 

Weeds, Injurious 105 

Wet Rot 121, 122 

Whale Oil Soap 136 

Wheat, Depth at which Roots 

Form 15 

Varieties Resistant to Rust . 82 

White Arsenoid 138 

Wild Potato 1 

Wireworms 127 

Wood Ashes 43, 119 



Yield 



7, 14, 26-28, 70, 74, 75, 84, 87 
132, 134, 153 

Average 74, 153 

Effects of Sprouting Upon . .. 58 
Influence of a Crop of Clover 

on 27,28 

Influence of Light Upon ... 8 
Influence of Soil on . . . 19, 20, 87 
Influence of Spraying on . 132, 134 
Influence of the Variety 

Upon . 19, 20, 75,87 

Maximum 74 



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THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS 



Farm and Garden 

Fruits, Flowers, etc. 

Cattle, Sheep and Swine 

Dogs, Horses, Riding, etc. 

Poultry, Pigeons and Bees 
Angling and Fishing 
Boating, Canoeing and Sailing 
Field Sports and Natural History- 
Hunting, Shooting, etc. 

Architecture and Building 

Landscape Gardening 

Household and Miscellaneous 



...PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS... 

Orange Judd Company 

52 and 54 Lafayette Place, NEW YORK 

Books will be Forwarded, Postpaid, on Receipt of Price 



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